Subbash C. Bhatnagar 2007 Neuroscience for the Study of Communicative Disorders.
John P.J. Pinel with Maggie Edwards 2007 A Colorful Introduction to the Anatomy of the Human Brain.
The name assigned to the document by the author. This field may also contain sub-titles, series names, and report numbers.BIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF LANGUAGE.
Personal author, compiler, or editor name(s); click on any author to run a new search on that name.LENNEBERG, ERIC H.
Abstract:
A brief narrative description of the journal article, document, or resource.THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN BIOLOGY AND LANGUAGE IS EXPLORED IN THIS VOLUME. THE AUTHOR BELIEVES THAT "LANGUAGE IS THE MANIFESTATION OF SPECIES-SPECIFIC COGNITIVE PROPENSITIES. IT IS THE CONSEQUENCE OF THE BIOLOGICAL PECULIARITIES THAT MAKE A HUMAN TYPE OF COGNITION POSSIBLE." IN ATTEMPTING TO "REINSTATE THE CONCEPT OF THE BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF LANGUAGE CAPACITIES" THE AUTHOR FORMULATES SPECIFIC ASSUMPTIONS WHICH CAN BE SUBJECTED TO EMPIRICAL TESTS. CHAPTER TITLES ARE—
(1) THE CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK,
(2) MORPHOLOGICAL CORRELATES,
(3) SOME PHYSIOLOGICAL CORRELATES,
(4) LANGUAGE IN THE CONTEXT OF GROWTH AND MATURATION,
(5) NEUROLOGICAL ASPECTS OF SPEECH AND LANGUAGE,
(6) LANGUAGE IN THE LIGHT OF EVOLUTION AND GENETICS,
(7) PRIMITIVE STAGES IN LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT,
(8) LANGUAGE AND COGNITION, AND
(9) TOWARD A BIOLOGICAL THEORY OF LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT.
NOAM CHOMSKY IS THE AUTHOR OF APPENDIX A, "THE FORMAL NATURE OF LANGUAGE," AND
O. MARX HAS WRITTEN APPENDIX B, "THE HISTORY OF THE BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF LANGUAGE." EXTENSIVE REFERENCES ARE LISTED AFTER EACH CHAPTER.
THIS BOOK IS PUBLISHED BY JOHN WILEY AND SONS, INC., 605 THIRD AVENUE, N.Y., N.Y.10016 ($14.95). (JD)
Chapter 1- V. Relationship between Form and Behavior
When the term learning theory is used, it is ordinarily applied to universal aspects of learning. Psychologists who concern themselves with such theories point out sometimes that there are some aspects of behavior to which the theories do not apply, as, for instance, the swallowing mechanisms in pigeons, the peculiarities of a buzzard’s flight, or the phonetic differences between meowing and barking. These phenomena are considered to be appropriate subjects for the biologist but not for the behaviorist. The distinction between biological and psychological aspects of behavior may be possible in certain instances, particularly in behavioral phenomena observed in laboratory experiments, but in many more instances there is no way of telling whether a given phenomenon ought to be explained (or investigated) in terms of psychological or biological mechanisms. We have criticized this distinction throughout this chapter, but we must add one more reason for abolishing the distinction.
當我們提及「學習理論」(Learning theory) ，通常講得是universal aspects of learning學習的世界觀。心理學家涉及這些理論時，Psychologists who concern themselves with such theories有時候會指出這些理論不適用於there are some aspects of behavior一些動物行為當中，例如：鴿子吞嚥的機制；鵟鷹鷲buzzard鳥飛行的獨特性；或是貓叫和狗吠聲韻phonetic上的不同。這些現象恰如其分的被視為生物學家研究的appropriate subjects for the biologist but not for the behaviorist課題，而非行為學家。動物行為在生理層面和心理層面的差別，或許在某些情況中能有所區別The distinction … may be possible in certain instances, particularly in behavioral phenomena observed in laboratory experiments，但在many more instances大部分的狀況裡，我們無法單there is no way of telling whether a given phenomenon ought to be用生理結構或心理mechanisms結構來解釋(或研究)某種現象。我們已經在整個章節中批評此種區別，但我們仍必須再加上一項屏除此種區別的理由。
It is often thought that behavior which is executed by or is dependent upon a peculiar structure typical of a certain type of animal must therefore be biologically based. The grasping movements of an elephant are of no particular relevance to learning theory; they are said to be species-specific and biological! A corollary to this kind of reasoning is that the absence of a special structure or organ should be a criterion for the psychological nature of the behavior. Thus it has been pointed out time and again that man has evolved no special organ for speech, the implication being that we are simply making use of the organs for eating and breathing in our efforts to communicate. This is seriously offered as evidence for the arbitrary, learned, artifactual nature of language.
我們通常會認為It is often thought that behavior which某種特定的行為，是依賴某種特定生物的獨特構造所操控，must therefore be biologically based因此和生物學脫不了干係。大象抓握的動作和學習理論沒有特別的關係，他們說這就是species-specific and biological物種特性和生物本能。這種推論的必然結果，就是absence of a special structure or organ特殊構造或器官應該當作a criterion for the psychological nature of the behavior行為的自然心理標準。因此，人類物種it has been屢次被指出，並沒有發展出特殊的器官來說話，the implication being that we are simply making use of the organs for eating and breathing in our efforts to communicate這些器官只簡單被用來進食和呼吸進而努力嘗試來溝通。這種說法seriously offered as evidence for的證明了語言的任意性、可學性和人造性。
The reasoning here is poor, however. The relationship between the outer form of an animal to its species-specific behavior repertoire is not always clear. So many factors influence this relationship that no canonical truths about innateness may be inferred from it.
然而此理論的reasoning立場相當薄弱，The relationship between動物的外在形體和特定物種的behavior repertoire行為表現，並沒有相對的關係is not always clear，許多因素都影響著這層關係，沒有任何標準的真相no canonical truths about innateness可從中推論而得。
Paul Cézanne (IPA: [pɔl se'zan]; 19 January 1839 – 22 October 1906) was a French artist and Post-Impressionistpainter whose work laid the foundations of the transition from the 19th century conception of artistic endeavour to a new and radically different world of art in the 20th century. Cézanne can be said to form the bridge between late 19th century Impressionism and the early 20th century's new line of artistic enquiry, Cubism. The line attributed to both Matisse and Picasso that Cézanne "is the father of us all" cannot be easily dismissed.
Cézanne's work demonstrates a mastery of design, colour, composition and draftsmanship. His often repetitive, sensitive and exploratory brushstrokes are highly characteristic and clearly recognizable. He used planes of colour and small brushstrokes that build up to form complex fields, at once both a direct expression of the sensations of the observing eye and an abstraction from observed nature. The paintings convey Cézanne's intense study of his subjects, a searching gaze and a dogged struggle to deal with the complexity of human visual perception.
Cézanne was famous for drawing still lifes, especially those which expressed complex emotions while still being based upon reality. These type of paintings would eventually lead up to the creation of new art styles during the 20th century such as Picasso's cubism.
Portrait of Dr. Gachet is one of the most revered paintings by Dutch artist Vincent van Gogh and fetched a record price of $82.5 million ($75 million, plus a 10 percent buyer's commission)[1] in 1990.
There are two authentic versions of this portrait, both painted in June 1890 during the last months of Van Gogh's life. Both show Doctor Gachet sitting at a table and leaning his head onto his right arm, but they are easily differentiated.
The portraits were painted in Auvers-sur-Oise close to Paris, and depict Doctor Paul Gachet with a foxglove (Fingerhut指顶花Digitalis洋地黄) plant. Gachet took care of Van Gogh during the artist's last months. Gachet was a hobby painter and became good friends with Van Gogh. The foxglove in the painting is a plant from which digitalis is extracted for the treatment of certain heart complaints; the foxglove is thereby an attribute of Gachet as a doctor.
Ah! portraiture, portraiture with the thought, the soul of the model in it, that is what I think must come."[3]
Van Gogh wrote to his brother in 1890 about the painting:
”I've done the portrait of M. Gachet with a melancholy expression, which might well seem like a grimace to those who see it... Sad but gentle, yet clear and intelligent, that is how many portraits ought to be done... There are modern heads that may be looked at for a long time, and that may perhaps be looked back on with longing a hundred years later.“
It was painted before his first attack at the asylum. There is a lack of the high tension which is seen in his later works. He called the painting "the lightning conductor for my illness", because he felt that he could keep himself from going insane by continuing to paint.
The painting was influenced by Japanese ukiyo-e浮世絵woodblock prints (木版印刷（もくはんいんさつ）), like many of his works and those by other artists of the time. The similarities occur with strong outlines, unusual angles, including close-up views and also flattish local colour (not modelled according to the fall of light).
Van Gogh painted Self-Portrait without beard just after he had shaved himself. The self-portrait is one of the most expensive paintings of all time, selling for $71.5 million in 1998 inNew York. At the time, it was the third (or an inflation-adjusted fourth) most expensive painting ever sold.
Vincent van Gogh created many self-portraits during his lifetime. Most probably, Van Gogh's self portraits are depicting the face as it appeared in the mirror he used to reproduce his face, i.e. his right side in the image is in reality the left side of his face. All Self-Portraits executed in Saint-Rémy show the artist's head from the left, i.e. the side with ear not mutilated.
Sunflowers (original title, in French, Tournesols) are the subject of a series of still life paintings executed in oil on canvas by the Dutch painter Vincent van Gogh. Among the Sunflowers paintings are three similar paintings with fifteen sunflowers in a vase, and two similar paintings with twelve sunflowers in a vase.
Van Gogh began painting in late summer 1888 and continued into the following year. One went to decorate his friend Paul Gauguin's bedroom. The paintings show sunflowers in all stages of life, from fully in bloom to withering. The paintings were innovative for their use of the yellow spectrum, partly because newly invented pigments made new colours possible. In a letter to his brother Theo, van Gogh wrote: the sunflower is mine in a way.
Artist model Fernande Olivier (1881-1966) was Picasso's first long term relation and subject of many of Picasso's Rose Period paintings (1905-07).
1912-1915 Marcelle Humbert (Eva Gouel 1885-1915)
Fernande left Picasso in 1912, months after Picasso took an interest in Marcelle Humbert, known as Eva Gouel (1885-1915).
Picasso was devastated by her early death due to tuberculosis or cancer in 1915. Picasso professed his love to Eva by painting "I Love Eva" in some of his paintings. Still, during Eva's sickness Picasso managed a relationship with Gaby Lespinasse.
1917-1927 OlgaKhokhlova (1891-1955) First Wife
In 1917 ballerina OlgaKhokhlova (1891-1955) met Picasso while the artist was designing the ballet "Parade" in Rome, to be performed by the Ballet Russe. They married in the Russian Orthodox church in Paris in 1918 and lived a life of conflict. She was of high society and enjoyed formal events while Picasso was more bohemian in his interests and pursuits. Their son Paulo (Paul) was born in 1921 (and died in 1975), influencing Picasso's imagery to turn to mother and child themes. Paul's three children are Pablito (1949-1973), Marina (born in 1951), and Bernard (1959).
1927-1936 Marie-Thérèse Walter (1909-1977)
In 1927 Picasso met Marie-Thérèse Walter (1909-1977), a 17 year old who Picasso then lived with in a flat across the street from his marital home (while still married to Olga). Marie-Thérèse and Picasso had a daughter, Maya(Maria de la Concepcion) on October 5, 1935. (Picasso and Olga later separated although they remained married so Olga would not receive half of Picasso's wealth -- until she died in 1955. ) Picasso's relation with Marie was kept from Olga until Olga was told of Marie's pregnancy. Marie understandably became jealous when Picasso started to fall in love with Dora Maar in 1936, a year after Maya was born. It was Marie-Thérèse who was the inspiration for many of Picasso's famous Vollard Suiteetchings. Marie-Thérèse died by hanging herself in 1977, four years after Picasso died. Maya's son, Olivier Widmaier wrote "Picasso: The Real Family Story" about his artist grandfather, in 2004.
In 1936 54-year old Picasso met Yugoslavian Dora Maar (1907 -1997), the photographer who documented Picasso's painting of Guernica, the 1937 painting of Picasso's depiction of the German's having bombed the Basque city of Guernica, Spain during the Spanish Civil War. She became Picasso's constant companion and lover from 1936 through April, 1944. Maar went back to painting and exhibited in Paris soon after Picasso left her for Françoise. Picasso referred to Dora as his "private muse". In later years she became a recluse, dying poor and alone.
1943-1953 Françoise Gilot (1921-)
In 1943 Picasso (age 62) then kept company with young art student Françoise Gilot (born in 1921). Their two children were Claude (1947) and Paloma(1949) who was named for the dove of peace that Picasso painted in support of the peace movement post World War II. Gilot, frustrated with Picasso's relationships with other woman and his abusive nature left him in 1953. Gilot's book "Life with Picasso" was published 11 years after their separation. In 1970 she married American physician-researcher Jonas Salk (who later died in 1995).
1951-1953 Genevieve Laporte (1927-)
In 1944 17-year old Genevieve Laporte (born in 1927) interviewed Picasso for a school newspaper. Years later in May, 1951 Picasso began an affair with the then-24 year old. The relationship started when Laporte visited the 70-year old Picasso at his studio while he was still living with Françoise Gilot. That summer of 1951 Picasso took Laporte to St Tropez, leaving Françoise behind. After declining Picasso's invitation to move in with him in St. Tropez, she left him in 1953 at the same time that Françoise left the artist.
In 1972 she went public with the affair and stored the art that Picasso created of her in a safe. In 2005, at age 79, the poet Laporte auctioned 20 drawings of her that Picasso created during their secret affair. Picasso's time with Laporte has been referred to as Picasso's "tender period".
1953-1973 Jacqueline Roque (1926 -1986) Second Wife
Dejected and alone, in 1953 Picasso met Jacqueline Roque (1926 -1986) at the Madoura Pottery where Picasso created his ceramics. In 1961 (when Picasso was 79) she became his second wife. Picasso created more works of art based on Jacqueline than any of his other loves, in one year painting over 70 portraits of her.
When Picasso died on April 8, 1973, Jacqueline, who had been with Picasso for 20 years, prevented Picasso's children Claude and Paloma from attending his funeral. Jacqueline died from shooting herself in 1986.
Garçon à la Pipe (Boy with a Pipe) is a painting by Pablo Picasso. It was painted in 1905 when Pablo Picasso was 24 years old, during his Rose Period, soon after he settled in the Montmartre section of Paris, France. The oil on canvas painting depicts a Parisian (a person from Paris) boy holding a pipe in his left hand and wearing a garland or wreath of flowers.
Picasso fell in love with the 29-year old Maar at the age of 55 and soon began living with her. This painting was done during the year 1941, when the Nazis were occupying France.
Dora Maar au Chat presents the artist's most mysterious and challenging mistress regally posed three-quarter length in a large wooden chair with a small black cat perched behind her in both an amusing and menacing attitude. The faceted planes of her body and richly layered surface of brushstrokes impart a monumental and sculptural quality to this portrait. The painting is also remarkable for its brilliance of colour and the complex and dense patterning of the model's dress. The powerful figure is set in a dramatic, yet simple setting composed of a vertiginously inclined plane of wooden floorboards and shallow interior space that is arranged in a manner reminiscent of Picasso’s earliest manipulations of space in a cubist manner.
Dora Maar au Chat is one of Picasso’s most valued depictions of his lover and artistic companion. Their partnership had been one of intellectual exchange and intense passion -- Dora was an artist, spoke Picasso’s native Spanish, and shared his political concerns. She even assisted with the execution of the monumental Guernica and produced the only photo-documentary of the work in progress. She was an intellectual force – a characteristic that both stimulated and challenged Picasso and her influence on him resulted in some of his most powerful and daring portraits of his 75-year career. Among the best of them are the oils completed during the late 1930s and early 1940s, when Picasso’s art resonated with the drama and emotional upheaval of the era and which Dora came to personify. The luminous Dora Maar au Chat was painted in 1941, at the beginning of the Second World War in France .
Maar was one of the most influential figures in Picasso’s life during their relationship and she also became his primary model. By the time he painted the present picture he had incorporated Dora Maar’s image into countless versions of this motif. During the occupation of Paris by the Nazis, and as tension mounted in their relationship, the artist would express his frustration by furiously abstracting her image, often portraying her in tears. While the present portrait might seem a departure from Picasso's more hostile depictions of this model, it may be one of his most brilliant and biting provocations of his Weeping Woman. Picasso once likened Maar’s allure and temperament to that of an “Afghan cat”, and the cat in this picture is laden with significance. In the history of art, the pairing of cats and women was an allusion to feminine wiles and sexual aggression, as exemplified in Manet’s notorious Olympia. It is also interesting to consider that the artist has paid particular attention to the sharp, talon-like nails on the long fingers of his model. In life Maar’s well-manicured hands were one of her most beautiful and distinctive features, and here they have taken on another, more violent characteristic.
In addition to being a rare, three-quarter length portrait of Dora Maar, the present work is also a generous and painterly composition with an extraordinary attention to detail. The artist used an extraordinarily vibrant palette in his rendering of the angles of the chair and the patterning of Maar’s dress. The most embellished and symbolic element of the sitter’s wardrobe in this picture is her hat, Maar’s most famous accessory and signifier of her involvement in the Surrealist movement. Ceremoniously placed atop her head like a crown, it is festooned with colourful plumes and outlined with a band of vibrant red. Larger than life, an impression enhanced by her vibrant body that cannot be confined by the boundaries of the chair, Maar looms in this picture like a pagan goddess seated on her throne.
Femme aux Bras Croisés (Woman with Folded Arms), is a painting by Pablo Picasso done in 1902 during his Blue Period. The subject of the painting is unknown, but may be an inmate of the Saint-Lazare hospital-prison in Paris.[1]
In her book Pablo Picasso, Antonina Vallentin devotes a great deal of time to writing about the haunting qualities of this painting. She describes her views of the subject as an inmate, who recently attempted suicide and now carries the blank but menacing stare of those unfortunates who found themselves at Saint-Lazare during the early 1900s.[2]
Les Noces de Pierrette is a 1905 painting created by Spanish artist and sculptor, Pablo Picasso. Its title translates as "The marriage of Pierrette" and was created during Picasso's Blue Period; a time when he faced continual depression from the suicide of his friend Carlos Casagemas in 1901 as well as continual poverty early in his career.
Le Rêve (The Dream in French) is a 1932 oil painting (130 x 97 cm) by the 50-year old Pablo Picasso portraying his 24-year old mistress, Marie-Thérèse Walter. It is said to have been painted in one afternoon, on January 24, 1932. It belongs to Picasso's period of distorted depictions, with its oversimplified outlines and contrasted colors resembling early Fauvism.
The erotic content of the painting has been noted repeatedly, with critics pointing out that Picasso painted an erect penis, presumably symbolizing his own, in the upturned face of his model.[1]
Nude in a Black Armchair (Nu au Fauteuil Noir) is a portrait painted by Pablo Picasso on March, 9, 1932[1] of his mistress Marie-Thérèse Walter (1909-1977). It is currently owned by Les Wexner, founder of Limited Brands. It was sold for 45.1 million USD in 1999. Wexner donated the piece to the Wexner Center for the Arts at The Ohio State University. He provided major funding for the center. FormerMuseum of Modern Art curator William Rubin deemed it a "squishy sexual toy,"[2] with other critics describing a theme of fecundity being mutually displayed by both the female figure and the plant.[2] The first and the largest of a series of 1932 Marie-Thérèse Walter portraits, Picasso lived outside of Paris, in Boisgeloup, at the time.[1]
The Spanish rulers commissioned Pablo Picasso to create a large mural for the Spanish display at the Paris International Exposition (the 1937 World's Fair in Paris). The Guernica bombing inspired Picasso. Guernica shows the tragedies of war and the suffering war inflicts upon individuals. This monumental work has eclipsed the bounds of a single time and place, becoming a perpetual reminder of the tragedies of war, an anti-war symbol, and an embodiment of peace. On completion Guernica was displayed around the world in a brief tour, becoming famous and widely acclaimed. Within fifteen days of the attack, Pablo Picasso began painting this mural. This tour brought the Spanish civil war to the world's attention.
Guernica is of remarkable size, solely black and white, 3.5 metre (11 ft) tall and 7.8 metre (25.6 ft) wide, a mural-size canvas painted in oil. Picasso's purpose in painting it was not to create the non-representational abstraction typical of some of his contemporaries, such as Kazimir Malevich. Guernica presents a scene of death, violence, brutality, suffering, and helplessness without portraying their immediate causes. The choice to paint in black and white conveys the chronological nearness of a newspaper photograph and the lifelessness war affords.
Guernica depicts suffering people, animals, and buildings wrenched by violence and chaos.
The overall scene is within a room where, at an open end on the left, a wide-eyed bull stands over a woman grieving over a dead child in her arms.
The centre is occupied by a horse falling in agony as it had just been run through by a spear or javelin. The shape of a human skull forms the horse's nose and upper teeth.
Two "hidden" images formed by the horse appear in Guernica (illustrated to the right):
A human skull overlays the horse's body.
A bull appears to gore the horse from underneath. The bull's head is formed mainly by the horse's entire front leg which has the knee on the ground. The leg's knee cap forms the head's nose. A horn appears within the horse's breast.
The bulls tail forms the image of a flame with smoke rising from it, seemingly appearing in a window created by the lighter shade of gray surrounding it.
Under the horse is a dead, apparently dismembered soldier, his hand on a severed arm still grasps a shattered sword from which a flower grows.
A light bulb blazes in the shape of an eye over the suffering horse's head (the bare bulb of the torturer's cell.)
To the upper right of the horse, a frightened female figure, who seems to be witnessing the scenes before her, appears to have floated into the room through a window. Her arm, also floating in, carries a flame-lit lamp.
From the right, an awe-struck woman staggers towards the center below the floating female figure. She looks up blankly into the blazing light bulb.
Daggers that suggest screaming replace the tongues of the bull, grieving woman, and horse.
A bird, possibly a dove, stands on a shelf behind the bull in panic.
On the far right, a figure with arms raised in terror is entrapped by fire from above and below.
A dark wall with an open door defines the right end of the mural.
There are stigmata (the supposed marks on the hands of those who have "suffered as Jesus") on the hands of the dead soldier. Picasso was not religious, although he was brought up in the predominantly Catholic Spain, and these symbols are not to be interpreted as Christian identification.[citation needed] This, instead, reflects the idea that all of us suffer often without cause.[citation needed] Here Picasso is using a well recognisable image to demonstrate how we are all like Christ, in that we all suffer and eventually die.[citation needed]
Symbolism in Guernica
Interpretations of Guernica vary widely and contradict one another. This extends, for example, to the mural's two dominant elements: the bull and the horse. Art historian Patricia Failing said, "The bull and the horse are important characters in Spanish culture. Picasso himself certainly used these characters to play many different roles over time. This has made the task of interpreting the specific meaning of the bull and the horse very tough. Their relationship is a kind of ballet that was conceived in a variety of ways throughout Picasso's career."
When pressed to explain them in Guernica, Picasso said, "...this bull is a bull and this horse is a horse... If you give a meaning to certain things in my paintings it may be very true, but it is not my idea to give this meaning. What ideas and conclusions you have got I obtained too, but instinctively, unconsciously. I make the painting for the painting. I paint the objects for what they are."[1]
In "The Dream and Lie of Franco," a series of narrative sketches also created for the World's Fair, Franco is depicted as a monster that first devours his own horse and later does battle with an angry bull. Work on these illustrations began before the bombing of Guernica, and four additional panels were added, three of these relate directly to the Guernica mural.
Picasso said as he worked on the mural: “The Spanish struggle is the fight of reaction against the people, against freedom. My whole life as an artist has been nothing more than a continuous struggle against reaction and the death of art. How could anybody think for a moment that I could be in agreement with reaction and death? ... In the panel on which I am working, which I shall call Guernica, and in all my recent works of art, I clearly express my abhorrence of the military caste which has sunk Spain in an ocean of pain and death.”[2]
Pierre-Auguste Renoir (February 25, 1841–December 3, 1919) was a French artist who was a leading painter in the development of the Impressionist style. As a celebrator of beauty, and especially feminine sensuality, it has been said that "Renoir is the final representative of a tradition which runs directly from Rubens to Watteau".[1]
Bal au moulin de la Galette, Montmartre (commonly known as Le Moulin de la Galette) is an 1876 painting by French artist Pierre-Auguste Renoir at the Musée d’Orsay in Paris.
Posts
