NC206S08嘉芸

SUMMARY-承樺

The visual system is concerned with image perception, which involves four events: (1) the lens and cornea of the eye refract light rays (2) retinal photoreceptor cells then convert the electromagnetic energy of the light rays into changes in the membrane potential; (3) through integrating processing by other retinal neurons, the retinal ganglion transmits generated action potentials to the thalamus with relay to the visual cortex. (4) Finally, visual images are perceived in the primary visual cortex and interpreted in the associational visual cortex. Optical disturbances affect image formation, whereas lesions interrupting visual fibers result in different visual field losses.

視覺系統有關於圖像知覺，包含4個項目：(1)眼睛的晶狀體和角膜折射光射線(2) 視網膜上的視覺接受細胞把光射線的電磁能量轉變成膜電位的電位差；(3) 經由視網膜神經元的合成過程integrating processing by other retinal neurons，視網膜神經節的傳導產生動作電位到視丘再傳達到視覺皮層。(4) 最後，視覺影像在首要視覺皮層裡被察覺並且在聯想的視覺皮層裡解釋。視覺的騷動Optical disturbances = visual disorder影響成像，而打斷視覺纖維的損害導致不同的視野損失。

NC163S06莉婷

NC CH6 SUMMARY

SUMMARY-莉婷 9580049

Original English text?

間腦位於中腦及中腦之間，是由四個主要的結構組成的：丘腦、丘腦下部、上視丘及下視丘。丘腦是最大也是最主要間腦的突起神經，在感覺運動的傳達核心將感覺和運動訊息傳達前導向到大腦皮層。間腦劃分成許多特別功能的核心，每一個核心直接的形成解剖的投射圖來對應到新皮質區的功能區域。視丘下部是重要的運動功能組織，且與神經節的基部有功能性的相關。上視丘是間腦最舊的部分，是由繫帶神經和松果體腺體所組成的。松果體為內分泌器官，間接影響性線體和每日的規律上。下視丘是間腦控制自律活動和內分泌系統的主要結構。

NC259S11智源

Summary NC259S11 負責人:呂智源

Motor function is hierarchically organized at four arbitrarily identified neuraxial levels, with the spinal cord being the lowest. Motor nuclei of the spinal reflex are the final common pathway for both spinal reflex and cortical projections to muscle fibers. Consequently, the spinal cord is crucial in reflex muscle contractions and voluntary movements. The environmentally triggered reflex responses regulated by the spinal cord include the stretch (myotatic) reflex, withdrawal (flexor) reflex, and crossed extensor reflex. Even though these reflexes are independent of voluntary motor control, intact cortical projections to the spinal cord are important in the regulation of these reflexes. Constantly relayed sensory information, which is vital to coordinated motor activity, is integrated at every level of the nervous system. Spinal lesions that interrupt both cortical and spinal reflex projections to limb muscles result in LMN syndrome. The clinical picture of this syndrome is characterized by flaccid paralysis, absent reflexes, and atrophy of muscle fibers.

運動功能在四個任意且可辦別的軸索的階段neuraxial levels是有分層地組織，而脊髓是最下面的。脊髓反射的運動神經核與皮質支配肌肉纖維Motor nuclei of the spinal reflex are the final common pathway for both spinal reflex and cortical projections to muscle fibers.。之後Consequently = therefore,，脊髓對於肌肉收縮的反射以及自主性的活動voluntary movements是重要的。環境性會引起受到脊髓調節的反射反應The environmentally triggered reflex responses regulated by the spinal cord，這包含了牽張反射、屈肌反射withdrawal (flexor) reflex以及交叉伸肌反射。雖然，這些反射在自主運動神經控制之下是獨立的，完整的皮質對脊髓的支配對於調節這些反射是很重要的。持續性的感覺訊息傳遞is integrated at every level of the nervous system，這對協調運動活動是很重要的，在每一階段的神經系統是完整的。脊髓損傷that interrupt both cortical and spinal reflex projections to limb muscles對於皮質以及脊髓對於肢體肌肉的反射與支配兩者都會受到干擾，因此造成了下運動神經元系統受傷的症狀。這種症狀is characterized by臨床的描寫，有鬆弛性癱瘓、缺乏反射和肌肉的萎縮特徵。

NC113S03

NC113S03

Ch03 Summary 心妤

P.113

英打：

Knowledge of the internal brain anatomy is the most important part of training in neuroscience and is essential for solving clinical problem.
It is learned best by repeated study of the internal structures on serial sections of the spinal cord, brainstem, and forebrain and by relating the structures to their functions.
Visual orientation to the structures and functional knowledge of the internal anatomy are essential because the form the basis for the overall understanding of brain structures and their relation to clinical symptoms .

翻譯：

腦內解剖學的知識是在訓練神經科學中最重要的一部份，同時是在解決臨床問題中最基本而不可或缺的。
最好是學習脊髓、腦幹、前腦內部構造的重複學習和它們的結構與功能連結部分
視覺取向對結構和內部解剖的功能知識是不可或缺的，因為為對腦結構的整體理解和對於臨床症狀的連繫關係的形式。

NC420S19

NC420S19宜蒨

NC420 CH19Summary

驗收者：9580025林宜蒨

第19章Summary

9580025林宜蒨

This chapter discusses the functional organization of the human cerebral cortex and the principal syndromes of abnormal cortex functioning that result from brain diseases. The emphasis is on speech and language disorders, including related disorders, such as apraxia, agnosia, dementia, and TBI. These topics constitute the part of neurology increasingly known as behavioral neurology or cognitive neuroscience.

這章討論人類大腦皮質的功能性組織和principal syndromes of abnormal cortex functioning that result from brain diseases異常的外皮組織主要的併發症導致大腦疾病。強調說話和語言的混亂，包括失調，例如：失語症、認知不能、癡呆和TBI (Traumatic Brain Injury)。神經學主要的組成漸增地了解神經學和認知神經學。

NC404S18

NC404S18宜蒨

NC404 CH18Summary

驗收者：9580025林宜蒨

9580025林宜蒨

CSF, which the choroid plexus produces, circulates from the ventricles to the subarachnoid space. Along with the meningeal membranes, CSF protects the brain and spinal cord. Its other function is to regulate extracellular environments. It collects harmful substances and waste products that result from cellular metabolic activities. Inadequate drainage of the CSF results in excessive accumulation of CSF followed by increased intracranial pressure and hydrocephalus. Hydrocephalus can be treated by surgically implanting a shunt. However, if not adequately treated, the increased intracranial pressure that accompanies hydrocephalus enlarges the ventricular cavity and causes irreparable brain damage.

腦脊髓液是由眼球的網狀組織choroid plexus產生，從腦室循環到蛛網膜表面。伴隨著腦膜，腦脊髓液保護著腦和脊椎。另一個功能是管理細胞外的環境。他收集有害物質和廢物harmful substances and waste products that result from cellular metabolic activities導致細胞的新陳代謝。當顱內壓力增加和腦水腫時，會造成腦脊髓液不充分的排水而導致腦脊髓液過度累積。腦水腫可以經由外科手術植入一個轉軌shunt而得到治療。然而，如果沒有if not adequately treated伴隨治療，增加的顱內壓力會伴隨著腦水腫擴大了腦室腔，且導致無法挽回的腦部傷害。

NC299S14

Chapter 14 Motor System 4 : Motor Cortex

The several motor cortices control voluntary manipulative and delicate motor movements and initiate motor performance. Descending cortical projections to the motor neurons travel via two pathways, the corticobulbar tract and the corticospinal tract, collectively called the pyramidal tract. These tracts control cranial and spinal motor neurons (LMN), respectively. Activity at the motor cortex is influenced by extensive feedback channels from the cerebellum, brainstem, thalamus, and basal ganglia.

不同的運動皮質支配隨意操縱和精巧靈敏的動作以及執行運動的開端。 下行皮質投射至運動神經運行經由兩個路徑，corticobulbar tract和大腦皮質脊髓徑，總稱錐體路徑。這些路徑個別控制腦和脊髓運動神經。運動皮質的活動受小腦、腦幹、視丘、及基底核的回饋通道影響非常大。

A lesion interrupting the excitatory projections from the motor cortex results in a specific loss of delicate motor control. It also results in sings of muscle weakness, flaccid tone, hyporeflexia, and loss of reflexes. However, in several weeks, the hyporeflexia and flaccid tone are replaced by increased reflexes (hyperreflexia ) and spastic tone in muscles.

若有一傷害打斷運動皮質的刺激將會很明顯的造成精細運動的控制喪失。 也會造成肌肉無力、肌肉張力下降、反射減弱、甚至反射作用喪失。然而在幾週內，反射減弱和肌肉張力下降會轉變為反射過強以及肌肉痙攣的現象。

NC351S15

Ch15 Summary

The human cranial nerves are the result of evolutionary modifications to a basic vertebrate pattern of CNS organization, constructed of ~40 bilaterally symmetrical repeating segments. During development, the first 2 nerves ( olfactory [ CN I] and optic [ CN II] ) became elaborated as the forebrain and involve the thalamus before reaching the cortex. The remaining 10 cranial nerves originate from the brainstem and innervate the muscles of the head, neck, face, larynx, tongue, and pharynx. These muscles serve speech, resonance, swallowing, facial expression, chewing, and phonation. Besides serving special senses such as vision, audition, smell, and taste, the cranial nerves regulate autonomic secretive functions of glands in the oral, nasal, and orbital cavities.

人的腦神經The human cranial nerves are在中樞神經系統組織中，to a basic vertebrate pattern of CNS organization是___一種基本脊椎動物的樣式the result of evolutionary modifications是演化修改的結果，constructed of ~40 bilaterally symmetrical repeating segments是被建立在~40個雙向對稱重複的片段。在發展期間，前2對神經(嗅神經[CN I]和視神經[CN II])變得精細的如同前腦and involve the thalamus before reaching the cortex和神經在介入丘腦到達皮質之前。其餘的10對腦神經起源於腦幹並且支配頭、脖子、顏面、喉、舌頭和咽的肌肉。這些肌肉serve可作用為言語，共鳴，吞嚥，面部表情、咀嚼和發聲。除Besides serving special senses such as vision, audition, smell, and taste可提供特別感覺之外，例如視覺、聽覺、嗅覺和味覺，腦神經___調控腺體在嘴、鼻和眼眶等autonomic secretive functions自律的秘密功能。

摘要：第一段是在說「人類的腦神經是脊索動物中樞神經組織的基本演化及改進的結果，構造為~兩側成對且重複的部份，發展的期間，前兩對腦神經變成怎樣怎樣，剩下的十對腦神經分別從腦幹去支配各個部位的肌肉等。」

Some cranial nerves mediate only sensation, whereas others exclusively serve motor functions. However, most nerves have both sensory and motor functions. Some cranial nerves serve only a single functional component, whereas others contain fibers to serve two or more functional components. Several motor cranial nuclei receive corticobulbar projections from both sides of the motor cortex. This bilaterality of projection has important clinical implications for the motor speech processes.

一些腦神經mediate only sensation僅間接傳遞感覺，而其它腦神經卻完全作為運動功能。然而，絕大多數神經具有感覺和運動兩種功能。 一些腦神經serve only a single functional component僅提供單一個功能成分，而其它腦神經contain fibers to serve包含纖維的能提供兩個或多個功能成分。有些motor cranial nuclei腦神經運動核接受corticobulbar projections from both sides of the motor cortex從運動皮質的兩邊的延髓皮質投射。This bilaterality這___兩側對稱的投射在運動言語過程具有重要臨床涵義。

摘要：第二段是在說「部分腦神經只是間接的傳遞感覺，反倒是其他部分的腦神經有的是直接就到動器去了，儘管如此，大部分的神經都是同時具備感覺和動作的功能的。」

NC226S09

Ch09 Summary

Audition begins in the external ear, when collected sound waves strike the tympanic membrane. The resulting vibration of the tympanic membrane converts sound waves into mechanical energy, causing the middle ear bones to move back and forth. This mechanical energy is further transformed to a hydraulic form of energy in the cochlear fluid of the inner ear, which activates the sensory hair cells in the cochlea and transforms the hydraulic energy to electrical never impulses.

當收集的聲波撞擊鼓膜時，Audition begins in the external ear聽覺是從在外耳開始。The resulting vibration of the tympanic membrane鼓膜的振動結果把聲波轉換成機械能，造成中耳聽骨前後移動。這機械能在內耳的耳蝸液體中進一步被變換成一種hydraulic form of energy水壓能量的形式，在耳蝸中激活感覺毛細胞並且從水壓能量變換到electrical never impulses電神經衝動。

摘要：「當收集的聲波傳入鼓膜時，聽覺從外耳開始。鼓膜的振動把聲波轉變成機械能，導致中耳的三小聽骨來回移動。這機械能被更進一步在內耳的耳蝸裡改變成流體的能量， 在耳蝸裡觸動毛細胞並且把流體的力能改變成神經電位傳導。」

The nerve impulses are transmitted by vestibulocochlear nerve (CN VIII) fibers to the cochlear nuclei in the brainstem. The cochlear cells project these nerve impulses to multiple synaptic points in the brain stem and the thalamus before transmitting the impulses to the primary auditory cortex in the temporal lobe. The auditory impulses travel from the primary and secondary auditory cortex to the Wernicke (associational language) area, where the auditory signals are analyzed and interpreted into meaningful language-specific messages.

The nerve impulses神經衝動由前庭耳蝸神經(CN VIII)纖維傳達給在腦幹中的耳蝸核。before transmitting the impulses to the primary auditory cortex in the temporal lobe在顳葉傳送脈衝給主要聽覺皮層之前，耳蝸細胞投射出這些神經衝動給在腦幹和丘腦的多胞突接合點。聽覺衝動從主要和次要聽覺皮層移動到Wernicke (聯想語言)區Wernicke (associational language) area，在此處聽覺信號被分析並且interpreted into meaningful language-specific messages被譯成具有特定語言的訊息。

摘要：「耳蝸裡的前庭神經(CN VIII)傳送神經纖維到腦幹。耳蝸細胞神經傳導到大腦內視丘多胞突接合的點在傳送到主要聽覺皮層前的顳葉。從主要與第二聽覺的皮層到Wernicke(配對語言)的聽覺區塊，聽覺的信號被分析並且翻譯成有意義的具體語言訊息。」

NC397S17

NC397S17

CH17 Summary珮馨

P.397~P.398

英打：

The CNS depends on an adequate and uninterrupted supply of blood and oxygen. The heart pumps oxygenated blood to the CNS through two arterial systems, vertebro-basilar and the carotid. Both of these arterial systems ascend and join the arterial circle of Willis at the base of the brain. Three cortical branches and numerous penetrating subcortical branches arise from the circle of Willis and supply blood to the brain. After perfusion, the deoxygenated blood is collected by veins and drained into the sinus system responsible for transmitting the collected blood and cerebrospinal fluid back to the heart for reprocessing.

翻譯：

中樞神經系統（CNS）仰賴充分血液和氧氣加上不間斷的供應。心臟幫浦將有氧血透過二個動脈系統，脊椎基本部位和頸動脈傳輸到中樞神經系統CNS。在基本的大腦結構中，這兩個動脈系統登入且連接Willis動脈圈。三個皮質分支和多數穿過大腦皮質下分支，從Willis連接和提供血液給腦子。佈滿血液後,缺氧血由靜脈收集和排出到靜脈系統，傳輸已被收集到心臟的血液和腦脊髓流體回到心臟的過程。

NC129S04

NC129S04

Summary珮馨

There are 46 human somatic chromosomes. The current estimate of the number human genes is 31,778.Human sex cells divide by meiosis. Growth occurs through mitosis. Human development begins with the union of a spermatozoon and with a secondary oocyte. During week 1 of development, a zygote forms and divides into blastomeres that pass through the 2-, 3-, and 4-cell stages. In the 12- to 16-cell stages, on about day 6, the morula becomes the blastocyst and attaches to the endometrium. During week3, trophoblast differentiation and formation of the amnion and chorion, the two yolk sacs, and two germ layers(epiblast and hypoblast layers) occur. In week3, the mesoderm and endoderm form from the epiblast through the primitive streak, and the ectoderm differentiates. Somites and the neural tube develop at this time. The five brain vesicles appear early in week 4 and gradually differentiate into corresponding brain structures and ventricles. Sulci and gyri appear in approximately week 24. Abn-

ormal development of the central nervous system causes deficits such as anencephaly, cranium bifidum, spina bifida, hydrocephaly, and microcephaly. The peripheral nervous system is derived from a specialized portion of the neural tube, the neural crest. The nervous system continues to develop for many years after birth.

*This chapter is written by K.P Bhatnagar, PhD, University of Louisville School of Medicine, Louisville, KY.

翻譯：

人類有46條體染色體。最近估計人類基因的數目為317778。人類的生殖細胞藉由減數分裂來分離。發育的發生透過有絲分裂。人類的發展凱始於精子和第二卵母細胞（成熟卵）的結合。當第一周的發展，一個合子經過2、3、4細胞階段組成且分裂成胚葉細胞。在12到16 細胞階段大約第六天，桑葚卵變成胚囊且附著在子宮內膜。當第三週時，滋養層變異且組成羊膜及絨毛膜、兩個卵黃囊和兩個胚層（內胚葉層和外胚葉層）出現。在第三週，中胚葉和內胚葉從內胚葉層透過原線組成和外胚層的變異，體節和神經管發展於此時。在第四周五個原始的腦泡出現很早最後變異成相映的腦部結構及腦室。皮膚及腦回出現大約在第24週。中樞神經系統不正常的發展導致不足例如像無腦畸形、顱骨裂、脊柱裂、腦積水、小頭畸形。週邊神經系統從神經管特殊的位置導出，就是神經脊。神經系統在出生之後幾輾持續發育。

*本章節由美國路易維耳市醫學大學 K.P Bhatnagar博士所撰寫。

NC150S05

NC150S05馥榕

Ch5 summary

The neuron is the fundamental unit of the nervous system. Its major characteristic is the ability to communicate within the nervous system, with other parts of the body, and with the environment. With billions of multisynaptic connections, the nerve cells serve higher mental functions that include memory, thinking, reasoning, calculation, and language. Neuroglial cells, which support and protect nerve cells, are important in tissue repair and participate in phagocytizing cellular debris. Nerve cells communicate with one another through nerve impulses that represent all neuronal activity. The nerve impulses have a chemical component that underlies the electric potential of the cells. A neurotransmitter is a chemical substance release at a synapse that transmits signals across neurons. There are two types of transmitters in the nervous system: small molecules and large molecules (peptides). Small-molecules neurotransmitters include acetylcholine, dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin, glutamate, and GABA. They are known to have short-lasting effects. Large-molecule peptides produce long-lasting effects on postsynaptic nerve cells.

神經元是神經系統的基本單位，其主要的特色為具有溝通神經系統內部、及溝通身體其餘部分與環境間的能力。由於大量的多重突觸連結，使得神經細胞具有高等的心智功能，包含記憶、思考、推理、計算及語言。支撐及保護神經細胞的神經膠細胞，對於組織的修補及參與細胞殘骸的吞噬作用是相當重要的。神經細胞藉由代表所有神經性活動的神經脈衝來聯絡彼此。神經脈衝具有構成細胞電位基礎的化學組成，而神經傳導素是於突觸所被釋放的化學性物質，用來傳遞神經元間的訊號。神經系統中具有下列兩種傳導物質：小分子與大分子(胜肽)。小分子神經傳導物包含乙醯膽鹼、多巴胺、正腎上腺素、血清素、榖氨酸鹽及伽馬氨基丁酸。這些都具有短期的效用。而大分子胜肽在後突觸神經細胞可產生較長期的效用。

NC420S19

This chapter discusses the functional organization of the human cerebral cortex and the principal syndromes of abnormal cortex functioning that result from brain diseases. The emphasis is on speech and language disorders, including related disorders, such as apraxia, agnosia, dementia, and TBI. These topics constitute the part of neurology increasingly known as behavioral neurology or cognitive neuroscience.

NC271S12

NC271S12

Chapter 12 Motor System 2: Cerebellum

Summary

The cerebellum does not initiate motor movements, nor does it alter sensation. It functions as a servomechanism, constantly monitoring all body motor activities and comparing intended movements (planned by the motor and premotor cortex) against the updated sensory information it receives. By calculating discrepancies between sensory and motor states, it regulates the quality of motor movements generated elsewhere in the motor cortex, brainstem, or spinal cord. With its ability to make alterations for greater precision and smoothness during ongoing movement, the cerebellum contributes to muscle synergy, tone, and equilibrium. Signs of cerebellar dysfunction include paresis, hypotonia, ataxia, asymmetry, intention tremor, dysdiadochokinesia, dysarthria, and disequilibrium. Patients with cerebellar pathology lack the ability to control and regulate motor functions. Small lesions of the cerebellar cortex may cause minimal impairments that can be compensated for. However, massive cerebellar damage involving the deep nuclei or superior cerebellar peduncle can cause permanent and lasting deficits unless it occurs at a very young age. Cerebellar impairments do not affect reasoning, thinking, memory, or the comprehension of language.

NC259S11

Summary NC259S11

Motor function is hierarchically organized at four arbitrarily identified neuraxial levels, with the spinal cord being the lowest. Motor nuclei of the spinal reflex and cortical projections to muscle fibers. Consequently, the spinal cord is crucial in reflex muscle contractions and voluntary movements. The environmentally triggered reflex responses regulated by the spinal cord include the stretch (myotatic) reflex, withdrawal (flexor) reflex, and crossed extensor reflex. Even though these reflexes are independent of voluntary motor control, intact cortical projections to the spinal cord are important in the regulation of these reflexes. Constantly relayed sensory information, which is vital to coordinated motor activity, is integrated at every level of the nervous system. Spinal lesions that interrupt both cortical and spinal reflex projections to limb muscles result in LMN syndrome. The clinical picture of this syndrome is characterized by flaccid paralysis, absent reflexes, and atrophy of muscle fibers.

運動功能在四個任意且可辦別的軸索的階段是有分層地組織，而脊髓是最下面的。脊髓反射的運動神經核與皮質支配肌肉纖維。之後，脊髓對於肌肉收縮的反射以及自主性的活動是重要的。環境性會引起受到脊髓調節的反射反應，這包含了牽張反射、屈肌反射以及交叉伸肌反射。雖然，這些反射在自主運動神經控制之下是獨立的，完整的皮質對脊髓的支配對於調節這些反射是很重要的。持續性的感覺訊息傳遞，這對協調運動活動是很重要的，在每一階段的神經系統是完整的。脊髓損傷對於皮質以及脊髓對於肢體肌肉的反射與支配兩者都會受到干擾，因此造成了下運動神經元系統受傷的症狀。這種症狀臨床的描寫，有鬆弛性癱瘓、缺乏反射和肌肉的萎縮特徵。

NC404S17

CSF, which the choroid plexus produces, circulates from the ventricles to the subarachnoid space. Along with the meningeal membranes, CSF protects the brain and spinal cord. Its other function is to regulate extracellular environments. It collects harmful substances and waste products that result from cellular metabolic activities. Inadequate drainage of the CSF results in excessive accumulation of CSF followed by increased intracranial pressure and hydrocephalus. Hydrocephalus can be treated by surgically implanting a shunt. However, if not adequately treated, the increased intracranial pressure that accompanies hydrocephalus enlarges the ventricular cavity and causes irreparable brain damage.

NC150S05

NC150S05馥榕

Ch5 summary馥榕

The neuron is the fundamental unit of the nervous system. Its major characteristic is the ability to communicate within the nervous system, with other parts of the body, and with the environment. With billions of multisynaptic connections, the nerve cells serve higher mental functions that include memory, thinking, reasoning, calculation, and language. Neuroglial cells, which support and protect nerve cells, are important in tissue repair and participate in phagocytizing cellular debris. Nerve cells communicate with one another through nerve impulses that represent all neuronal activity. The nerve impulses have a chemical component that underlies the electric potential of the cells. A neurotransmitter is a chemical substance released at a synapse that transmits signals across neurons. There are two types of transmitters in the nervous system: small molecules and large molecules (peptides). Small-molecules neurotransmitters include acetylcholine, dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin, glutamate, and GABA. They are known to have short-lasting effects. Large-molecule peptides produce long-lasting effects on postsynaptic nerve cells.

神經元是神經系統的基本單位，Its major characteristic is the ability其主要的功能為to communicate溝通within the nervous system神經系統、with other parts of the body身體其餘部分and with the environment及環境。With billions of multisynaptic connections因為具有極大量的multisynaptic connections突觸連結，the nerve cells serve higher mental functions使得神經細胞能夠提供較高等的心智功能，包含記憶、思考、推理、計算及語言。具有支持及保護神經細胞的神經膠細胞，對於組織的修補及參與細胞殘骸的吞噬作用是相當重要的。神經細胞藉由神經脈衝來聯絡彼此communicate with one another through nerve impulses that represent all neuronal activity，而這就象徵了所有的神經性活動。神經脈衝have a chemical component的化學組成that underlies the electric potential of the cells為構成細胞電位的基礎，而神經傳導物neurotransmitter是由突觸所釋放released at a synapse的化學性物質，用來傳遞神經元間的訊號。神經系統中具有下列兩種傳導物質：小分子與大分子(縮氨酸peptides胜,)。小分子神經傳導物包含乙醯膽鹼、多巴胺、正腎上腺素、血清素、榖氨酸鹽glutamate及伽馬氨基丁酸GABA。這些都具有短期的效用。而大分子縮氨酸在神經細胞的後突觸postsynaptic nerve cells可產生較長期的效用。

peptide []

《名》 胜,(由胺基酸結合而成,由兩,三,四胺基酸合成之胜則標以di-,tri-,tetra-,peptides,為蛋白質之來源).

http://dict.vghtpe.gov.tw/search.php?word=peptides&Submit=+%ACd%B8%DF+&prefix=

NC024S01

Chapter 1 Essential concepts and principles of neuroscience

Neuroscience and communicative disorders are two closely related disciplines. Basic understanding of neuroscience is essential for a comprehensive training in speech-language-hearing pathology. The rationale for training in neuroscience is that it provides a broad framework for diagnosing communication disorders and for providing effective remediation. Such background will also help student in communicative disorders and human behavior become creative partners in a team approach to managing a patient’s clinical condition, nurturing good working relationships with colleagues in the medical and paramedical professions.

神經科學與溝通障礙是兩個緊密相關的學科。神經科學的基礎知識在a comprehensive training專業的聽語病理學的訓練是不可或缺的。需接受神經學訓練的基本理由是神經科學提供診斷溝通障礙與有效的矯正的寬闊架構。這樣的背景也可幫助student in communicative disorders and human behavior學生在關於管理病人的臨床情況的團隊中，針對溝通障礙與人類行為的領域成為有創造力的成員creative partners in a team approach to managing a patient’s clinical condition，與醫學的、輔助醫事職業的同事養成良好的工作關係。nurturing good working relationships with colleagues in the medical and paramedical professions

Although neuroscience is admittedly complex, there are ways to overcome its technical terminology. The basic neurologic concepts and technical tools that are prerequisite for learning neuroscience and are needed for solving clinical problems involving neurologically impaired patients have been presented. Familiarity with the rules of word formation and an approach that emphasizes persistent repetition, visual orientation, and deductive reasoning can make learning neuroscience easier. Visual familiarity with the graphic details given in Chapters 2 and 3 is necessary to develop the foundation for understanding the functional organization of the nervous system.

即使神經科學是admittedly complex一般公認地複雜，仍有方法去克服它的專業術語。基礎的神經學概念與專業工具that are是prerequisite for learning neuroscience學習神經科學的必要條件，and are needed for solving clinical problems involving neurologically impaired patients且需用來解釋有關神經受損病患曾出現的臨床問題have been presented。熟悉單字組成的規則與強調persistent堅持不懈的背誦repetition、visual orientation視覺定位、deductive reasoning推理模式可使神經科學的學習更加容易。視覺的通曉Visual familiarity with第二章、第三章所給予的圖解細節是發展develop the foundation for了解神經系統的功能性組織所必備的necessary to develop基石。