Resources for Communication Problems

Monday, March 31, 2008

LBT329-330筱柔

LBT329-330筱柔

CHAPTER Eight

Language and cognition

I. THE PROBLEM

The general problem to be considered in this chapter may be called the problem of reference; that is, the relationship between words and things, and the role that our capacity for naming may play in man’s organization of cognition.

語言和認知

I.問題

在這個章節裡被考慮的總問題也許稱為參考的問題;也就是字和事之間的關係,和我們命名的能力在人認知的組織所扮演的角色。

That the capacity for naming has a biological dimension may be seen from the difficulties that animals experience in this respect. For instance, it is possible to train a hunting dog to “point,” and it may be quite possible to teach him to point to a specific set of objects in a specific environment upon appropriate command in a natural language. But it does not appear to be possible to teach a dog to do the “name-specific stimulus generalization” that every child does automatically. The hound who has learned to “point to the tree, the gate, the house” in the trainer’s yard will perform quite erratically when given the same command with respect to similar but physically different object in an unfamiliar environment. The correctness of the animal’s responses may even vary with such extralinguistic cues as the geographical position, posture, and bodily movements of his master, the time of day, or the clothes that people are wearing while he is being exercised. There is no convincing evidence that any animal below man has ever learned to that word in common language-usage. So-called proof to the contrary always lacks proper controls on interpretation. For instance, there is a report on a parrot who could say good-by (in German) and who supposedly knew what this word meant or when it is properly used. Once the bird was also heard to say good-by upon the arrival of some friends of the family; the proud owner judged this to be a sign that his pet did not merely know the meaning of the word but was even using it to produce a desired effect: to send the just-arrived friends away, presumably because he had taken a dislike to them.

命名能力有一個生物向度可從有關動物經驗的爭議看見。例如有可能訓練一隻獵犬去也很有可能教牠以自然的語言作為根據的合適命令在特定的環境裡指一套特定的物體。但不可能教一隻狗每個小孩會自動去做的"特定命名刺激類化"。在訓練者的庭院學會"指向樹、門、房子"的獵犬當在一個不相似的環境裡收到一個相同的命令[S1] 相關但實際上不同的物體會表現相當怪異。動物的反應的正確性甚至會隨著語言以外的線索改變,像是地理位置、姿勢、主人的身體、時間或者是和牠一起練習的人衣服的顏色。沒有具說服力的證據指出在人之下的任何動物曾經以一般的語言使用學會單字。所謂相對的證明在解釋上總是缺乏合適的控制。例如,有一個報告說一隻鸚鵡會說再見(用德語)而且大概知道這單字的意思或這何時該被適當地使用。一旦鳥在家人的朋友到來後立即說再見,得意的主人便判斷這訊號不僅表示他的寵物知道這字的含義也用它來產生一個期望的事件:送剛到達的朋友離開,大概是因為他不喜歡他們。

It may be well to stress once more that our concern is with the capacity for (natural, human) language which, ordinarily, leads to the understanding of a definably structured type of utterance; or, in other words, with knowing a language. The infant who has a repertoire of three tricks (wave by-by, show me your tongue, show me how tall you are) which he can perform upon the appropriate commands but who can understand no other sentence of the same grammatical, structural type has not yet begun to acquire language. The essence of language is its productivity; in the realm of perception and understanding of sentences, it is the capacity to recognize structural similarities between familiar and entirely novel word patterns. Thus our criterion for knowing language is not dependent upon demonstrations that an individual can talk or that he goes through some stereotyped performance upon hearing certain words, but upon evidence that he can analyze novel utterances through the application of structural principles. It is the purpose of this chapter to show that the understanding of the word-object relationship, the learning and acquisition of reference, is also dependent upon certain cognitive, analytic skills, much the way understanding sentence is. The problem of reference cannot be discussed without simultaneous considerations of the relationship between language and cognition.

一再著重我們平常所關心導致話語一定範圍結構型式的了解可能是很好的;或者換句話說,以知道一種語言。有位嬰兒有三種招數的技能(揮手再見、讓我看你的舌頭、告訴我你有多高)在適當的命令後他能執行,但他無法了解還沒學過的語言相同文法、結構形式的句子。語言的精華是它的生產力;在知覺的範圍和句子的理解內它是有能力去辨認相似和全新的語言樣本之間結構相似處。因此我們理解語言的準則不是取決於在個體能說或他經過一些固著的表現根據聽過的某些單字的示範而是根據顯示他能經由結構原則的運用分析新的語言樣本。這正是這個章節的目的顯示詞和物體關係的理解、參考的學習和取得也是取決於某些認知、分析技巧理解句子的方法。沒有同時存在語言和認知之間關係同時存在的考慮,參考的問題無法被談論。

Evidence for understanding language may be supplied by different kinds of response. It is not necessary that the subject has the anatomical and physiological prerequisites for actual speech production. In the case of man, we may cite children who have learned to understand language but who cannot speak; compare this to children who have the anatomical equipment for speech production but whose cognitive apparatus is so poorly developed that only the primordial for language are detectable but not fullfledged comprehension. In the case of animals, we have birds who can talk but who give no evidence of language understanding and we have famous case of Clever Hans, the horse, who had a nonacoustic response repertoire (stamping of hoofs) that, unfortunately, gave the erroneous impression of a coding system for the German language. Had the horse actually had the cognitive capacity for acquiring a natural language, his motor response limitations would have been no obstacle to his giving evidence for language comprehension. A similar argument could be made for the physical nature of the input data. Language acquisition is not dependent in man upon processing of acoustic patterns. There are many instances today of Deaf-and blind people who have built up language capacities on tactually perceived stimulus configuration.

了解語言的證據藉由不同種類的反應提供。主題有解剖和生理物質條件前提對於實際說話的產出是不必要的。就人類而言,我們會引學會了解語言但不會說話的孩子為證;比較孩子有說話產出的解剖設備但其認知設備是極貧乏發展所以只能偵測到最根本的語言但沒有足夠的理解力。就動物而言 我們有會說話的鳥但沒有語言理解的證據,我們有Clever Hans有名的案例,有匹馬有非聲學反映的技能(跺馬蹄)不幸地對於德語給編碼系統錯誤的印象。馬確實有習得自然語言的認知能力,他侷限的動作反應對於他所理解語言的證據沒有障礙。一個相似的論據能被做為輸入資料的物理性質。人類語言習得不是取決於聲音樣本的處理。現今有許多聾人和盲人的例子其語言能力是建立在觸覺感知的刺激形態。

LBT326筱柔

LBT326筱柔

Who is doing the first 2 paragraphs on page 326?

The transformation of grammar are …. infinitely possible ones.

A superficial survey of language … response shaping hypothesis.

Who is typing the references on page 327-328?

A comparison of language in retarded children with language development of normal children indicates that there is a “natural language-learning strategy” that cannot be altered by training programs. Language unfolds lawfully and in regular stages. Language progress in the retarded appears to be primarily controlled by their biological maturation and their development of organizational principles rather than intelligent insight. The pathologically lowered IQ of the retarded does not result in bizarre use of language but merely in “frozen” but normal primitive language stages.

正常兒童與遲緩兒童在語言發展上的比較可顯示出有個無法藉由訓練課程更動的自然形成的語言學習策略。語言發展是有規則的階段。語言發展遲緩兒童主要被他們生理的成熟和組織原理的發展所支配而非聰明的洞察力。病理上智商較低的遲緩兒不會異常使用語言而只是凍結正常原始的語言階段。

A remarkable degree of language competence is achieved by the congenitally deaf, despite apparently overwhelming handicaps. Thus, language may still develop under very abnormal conditions. The specific teaching of grammatical rules (no matter whether they are old-fashioned ones or modern) does not appear to help the children substantially in their language development. There is no reason to doubt that their language proficiency would develop in the same manner as it develops in the hearing who are simply given a great number of grammatical (and often semigrammatical) sentences from which they abstract the structural principles by which they themselves begin then to form new sentences. Deaf children could hardly differ in the capacity for doing this from hearing children, provided they were given enough examples and are allowed to go through a natural order of grammatical development. We do not know how hearing children develop their ability to abstract structural principles, and we do not know how deaf children might do it. But this is no reason to try to instill language habits by means (teaching of grammatical rules) which have never been shown to be of any use for any other language-learning child.

卓越的語言能力由先天耳聾者實現,儘管這明顯是壓倒性的障礙。因此,語言也許仍然出現在非常異常條件下。語法規則的特別教學(不論是古板或現代的)似乎在語言發展上沒有極大幫助。沒有理由懷疑,他們的語言能力在相同的方法中會進步如從單存地接收聽見大量合文法的句子內(和經常部分合文法的)自己提取結構原則而形成新的句子。聾孩子與聽力正常小孩能力幾乎沒有不同,假如他們被提供足夠的例子而且被允許經歷文法發展的自然次序。我們不知道怎麼聽孩子如何發展他們的能力提取結構原則,而且我們不知道聾孩子如何可能做到。但沒道理去嘗試藉由沒有顯示任何用處的方法(文法規則的教學)逐漸灌輸語言習性給任何其他學習語言的小孩

Who is typing the references on page 327-328?

Tuesday, March 25, 2008

CA107R6.4

CA107R6.4

撰寫人 3845雅雯

CA107R17

Pyramids 錐體

Two large bulges, one left and one right , on the ventral surface of the medulla; they contain the pyramidal tracts, which carry signals for voluntary movement from the cerebral hemispheres to motor circuits of thee spinal cord.

兩個大突起,一個在左一個在右,位於中腦的複測表面。他們包含了錐體徑攜帶從大腦半球到脊髓運動細胞的自體運動訊號。

相關查詢

錐狀體由大腦而來之神經纖維,經過脊髓至前角運動細胞

CA107R18

Red nuclei紅核

A pair of tegmental nuclei, one on the left and one on their right; they have a pinkish appearance and are important structures of the sensorimotor system.

一對被蓋核體,一個在左一個在右,粉紅色的外觀並且是感覺運動系統的重要組織。

相關查詢

紅核在中腦,接受大腦皮質運動區及對側小腦之訊息

CA107R19

Preoptic area 視神經交叉區域

The most anterior area of the hypothalamus, which is composed on each side of the brain of lateral and medial preoptic areas; it plays a role in sexual behavior.

下視丘最前側區塊,由各面側向和中間視神經交叉腦部區域組成,控制性行為。

CA107R20

Reticular formation網狀構造組織

A complex network of nuclei and short interconnecting tracts that is located in the core of the brain stem, from the medulla to the midbrain; its various nuclei play a role in controlling numerous vital body functions and in the promotion of arousal, attention, and sleep.

一個位於腦幹核心,從髓腦到中腦,複雜的神經核網狀系統和短的內部連結束。各式各樣的神經核扮演著控制眾多必要的身體功能和覺醒、注意、睡眠促進的角色。

相關查詢

腦幹是連接大腦與脊椎神經之中間組織,包括橋腦、中腦與延髓。

相關聯結

Psychology Wiki網站 Wikipedia

大腦剖面圖

圖片加資料

CA107R21

Substantia nigra黑質

A pair of tegmental sensorimotor nuclei, one on the left and one on the right; they are so named because many of their neurons contains a dark pigment.

一對被蓋感覺運動神經核,一個在左邊一個在右邊,之所以命名是因為它們很多的神經元包含暗色的色素。

相關查詢

大腦黑質(Substantia nigra)區的神經細胞軸突會延伸至紋狀體(Striatum),並由神經末梢釋放出多巴胺,多巴胺會引發紋狀體中的神經興奮,並使神經細胞繼續釋放多巴胺給下一個神經細胞,藉著神經纖維將協調人體動作的訊息傳到大腦皮質的運動中樞。

正常黑質組織內約含四十萬個多巴胺神經細胞,由於這些神經細胞含有黑色色素,裸視下這群神經細胞所在的區域呈現黑色,故稱之為黑質組織。黑質組織並非於胚胎發育時就已產生,而是於胚胎第45週時,中腦腹側的神經細胞才開始分化為多巴胺神經細胞,並漸漸伸出神經軸突,向距離約2公釐外的紋狀體(尾狀核及被殼之合稱)生長,形成所謂黑質紋狀徑路,也就是黑質多巴胺神經軸突聯合成束狀,一直延伸至紋狀體,且軸突廣泛的分佈於紋狀體內,並與紋狀體內的乙醯膽鹼及GABA神經細胞接合。這些多巴胺神經可分泌多巴胺,專司控制運動的協調。這些神經少許的退化,並不會引起任何運動的不協調,但當退化超過50%時,便開始出現輕微症狀,包括肢體顫抖、僵直及動作緩慢。右側黑質的退化則會引起左側肢體症狀,反之亦是。神經退化愈多,則上述症狀會愈嚴重。

相關聯結

黑質神經元

帕金森氏症

圖片

圖片2帕金森氏症和正常人比較

CA107R22

Superior coolliculi 上丘

The motor anterior of the two pairs of nuclei that constitute the mammalian tectum; they play a role in vision.

運動前側兩對神經核,構成哺乳動物的頂蓋。在視覺功能上扮演角色。

相關查詢

上視丘系統是人體腦內視覺反應中樞,它決定頭腦與眼睛的轉向以回應視覺與聽覺的刺激。在嬰兒時期,上視丘協助嬰兒將外在方向與內部視覺參考點產生關聯性,例如將母親嚅動的嘴唇與其聲音相鏡射,所以動作與聲音產生了關聯性。

相關聯結

相關網站1 相關網站2

圖片

CA107R23

Suprachiasmatic nuclei下視丘視叉上核

The pair of hypothalamic nuclei, one on the left and one on the right, that play a role in the timing of 24-hour biological rhythms; they are located just dorsal to the optic chiasm.

一對下視丘的神經核,一個在左一個在右,控制24小時的生理節律功能,剛好位於視神經交叉束背側。

相關查詢

下視丘的視叉上核(suprachiasmatic nucleus; SCN)是哺乳動物調控代謝、生理、行為等生物週期最主要的區域。SCN細胞不論是在分離狀態、在腦切片裏、或在活體內,其動作電位發射頻率都有晝夜不同的週期性變化,說明SCN確是哺乳動物的生物時鐘。

相關連結

相關網頁1

CA107R24

Supraoptic nuclei上視神經交叉核

One of the two pairs of hypothalamic nuclei that contain neurons whose axons terminate in the posterior pituitary; this pair is located above the optic chiasm, just posterior to the Suprachiasmatic nuclei.

兩對下視丘神經核之一,包含神經單位,所屬軸突終端在腦下垂體後側。這一對神經核位於神經交叉束上面,剛好在視叉上核背面。

相關查詢

在視丘下部,視神經交叉之上,對腦垂體後葉分泌抗利尿素有關。

抗利尿激素(ADH),也稱血管加壓素(vasopressin),主要在下視丘 hypothalamus)之視上核(supraoptic nucleus)形成,經神經軸突運送至腦下腺後葉(posterior pituitary)貯存,其在體內水份恆定的維持上扮演重要的角色

CA107R25

Thalamus視丘

The two-lobed diencephalic structure at the top of the brain stem, one lobe on each side of the third ventricle; several of its nuclei relay sensory information to the appropriate regions of the cerebral cortex.

兩葉diencephalic組織,在腦幹最上端。一葉在第三腦室各邊,數個神經核傳遞感覺訊息到大腦皮質適當部位。

相關查詢

視丘,為丘腦(thalamusmetathalamusepithalamus)之一部分,構成第三腦室側壁,在上視丘與下視丘之間,為感覺系統與大腦皮質之連接站。

視丘接受接受知覺訊息並將之傳送給大腦皮質。大腦皮質也會將訊息傳送至視丘並由此發送至其他腦部區域和脊髓。

相關聯結

相關網站1 相關網站2

相關網頁

圖片1 圖片2

CA107R26

Ventral posterior nuclei

The thalamic nuclei that relay tactual information to the cerebral cortex.

視丘神經核傳遞觸覺的訊息到大腦皮質。

相關聯結

相關網頁

CA107R27

Ventromedial nuclei

The pair of hypothalamic nuclei, one on the left and one on the right, that plays a role in regulating the conversion of blood glucose to body fat; they are located near the midline in the ventral part of the hypothalamus.

一對下視丘神經核,一個在左一個在右。調節血液葡萄糖轉換成體脂肪的功能,靠近下視丘腹側部分中線。

相關聯結

相關頁面

Tuesday, March 18, 2008

LBT291-294子倫

LBT291-294子倫

III. Evolvement of language in the healthy child 291

Grammatical understanding cannot always be explained simply by looking at the immediately underlying phrase-makers, but two semantic interpretations are possible in the presence of one and the same phrase-makers. In most cases, there are much more intricate relationships. Chomsky has demonstrated this by the ambiguous phrase.

III. 正常小孩的語言發展 291

文法上的了解沒辦法用直接地觀察片語結構的基礎來完全地解釋,但是兩個語義學上的解釋可能可以呈現相同的片語結構。在很多的個案裡,有越來越多錯綜復雜的相關性出現Chomsky有一個論証就是用複雜的片語來說明這個現象。

the shooting of the hunters,

where the ambiguity cannot be explained through an option of analysis in terms of either of two possible. But different phrase-makers, but two semantic interpretations are possible in the presence of one and the same phrase-maker. There is, then, something even more abstract which differentiates the meanings of this phrase. One interpretation is related to the sentence

Hunters shoot,

whereas the other has a grammatical affinity to

Hunters are shot.

獵人的狩獵場這個片語無法解釋一種分析的選擇就兩種可能的任何一個模式而言。但是不同的片語結構,兩個語義學上的解釋是可以呈現相同的片語結構。而且,某些事情甚至使這個片語的意思有更多不同的抽象意義。其中一個解釋是有關這個句子獵人射擊,而另一個解釋則有文法上的密切關係獵人被槍殺

Each of these latter sentences has a distinct phrase-maker. Each of these sentences (that is, one that has either of these grammatical structures) may be cast into a different grammatical form, namely a gerundial phrase. More succinctly stated: the first phrase “the shooting of the hunters,” may be interpreted in either of two ways is that speakers of the language see grammatical relatedness to two semantically very different sentences. The fact that all speakers immediately see these relationships clearly indicates that this must be based on some underlying grammatical principle by which one grammatical structure, that is, one type of phrase-marker, may be related to another .We have illustrated a universal principle of grammatical knowledge or understanding: there must be lawful ways in which certain types of structure may be related to other types of structure. The grammatical laws that control these relations have come to be called transformations.

這些後面句子的每一個都有特殊的片語結構。這些句子的每一個可能可以形成不一樣的文法形式,即是稱為動名詞片語。更簡潔的說明這個第一句片語獵人的狩獵場,可能可以用兩種方法的其中一個來解釋就是這個說話者觀察到這兩個非常不同的句子在語義學和文法上有很大的相關性。事實上所有的說話者都可以立即地看出這些相關性而很清楚的指出這個一定是基於某些基礎上的文法規則,透過語法結構上即可知道它只是片語結構的一種形式罷了,而且可能跟另一個有關。我們曾經用圖示來解釋文法上的知識的普遍規則: 它們一定有合乎規則的方法在架構的某些類型和其他架構的某些類型上有關。這些控制這些關係的語法規則已經開始被大家稱為transformations

FIG. 7.6. Structural interpretations have varying levels of depth. Semantic interpretation is another level. (The diagram is not meant to convey any depth-ordering between semantic and structural interpretations.)

7.6 結構上的解釋有很多各個等級的深度。語義學上的解釋是另一個等級。(這個圖解的意思不是在傳達語義學上和結構上解釋兩者之間的任何次序上的深度)

292 imitive stages in language development

Transformations are statements of grammatical as well as semantic and phonological connections.

In Fig. 7.6 are diagrammed varying levels of ambiguity. In Fig. 7.6a the ambiguity may be resolved by direct reference to immediate phrase-markers that may underly the sentence, whereas in Fig. 7.6b there is only one phrase-marker-interpretation possible, and therefore there is a still deeper level on which the ambiguity must be resolved.

Another prominent feature in the understanding of sentences is the ubiquitous possibility of seeing relationships and various types of affinities between sentences that have very different types of structure and are also phonetically and lexically different from one another. This is diagrammed in Fig. 7.6c, and an example is the passive transformation. Apparently, grammatical structures constitute intricate networks of transformational interrelations and complex systems of overlapping syntactic categories containing similarly functioning elements or sets of elements.

292 語言發展的最初時期

Transformations 是語法的陳述以及語義和音韻學上的關係。在圖7.6上就用圖解釋了這些複雜難懂的關係。在圖7.6a上這層複雜的關係或許可以被解決藉由直接的參考構成片語結構的這些句子,但是在圖7.6b上卻只有可能的一種片語結構的解釋,因此這個複雜難懂的關係仍然存在著我們沒辦法解決的難題。

在理解句子的另一個重要的特徵是瞭解句子的相關性和瞭解很多種不同類型的句子到處存在的可能性,知道句子有很多不同的結構而且和另一個句子在語音上和詞彙上也都會不同。這個用圖示的方式被解釋在圖7.6c上,另外還有一個例句是被動的結構句。很明顯的,文法結構組成transformational interrelations 的複雜網路系統和包含相似的作用要素的複雜句重疊句法這種複雜的系統。

(4) Structural Characteristics of Children’s Primitive Sentences

In the absence of systematic research on children’s understanding of adult sentences, and hence of their developing “analytic equipment” for syntax, we can only make educated guesses at how grammar actually develops. The study of adult syntax makes it clear that discourse could not be understood, and that no interpretable utterances could be produced, without syntactic development pari passu with lexical and phonological development. Syntax is the calculus, so to speak, of functional categories, and the categories are arranged hierarchically from the all-inclusive to the particular.

(4) 小孩早期句子的結構特性

在缺乏有系統的研究小孩對大人說得句子的了解程度到底有多少的情況下,發現了他們的句法發展出了分析的配備,我們只可以根據經驗來猜測文法在實際上是如何來發展的。大人句法的研究明確表示了大人的談話小孩子並不會了解,而且沒有可解釋的發聲或話語可以被產生,在句法和詞彙和音韻上沒辦法用相同的步調一起發展。句法是可數的,換句話說,是功能詞的種類,而且這個種類用等級制度分類到包含一切的部份。

The child whose language consists of nothing but single word utterances has obviously a more primitive syntactic understructure than the mature speaker. Syntactic categorization is the speaker’s act of super-imposing structure; he assigns given lexical items to parts of speech. The child’s syntax is primitive because all of his words have the same syntactic function: they may be used as a self-sufficient utterance. There is just one undifferentiated syntactic category, and any word heard or produced is assigned to it. If we wish to introduce Chomskian notation already at this primitive stage. We might use the equation or rewriting instruction as he calls it, S→w, which reads in this grammar a sentence S is formed by the use of any word that belongs to the class, and all of the child’s words do belong to it.

小孩子他們的語言只不過是由單一句所構成的,比起成熟的說話者而言還留著很明顯的原始的句法結構的基礎。句法的種類是說話者非常偉大的結構所形成的動作;他分配詞彙項目給言語的一部份。小孩子的句法是比較原始的因為它的單字有一樣的句法功能:他們可能被用來當作自給自足的話語。只有一個無明顯差異的句法種類,並且聽到或是產生任何單字都會被分配到它身上。如果我們想要介紹最初的階段用chomskian 的論點的話,當他稱它為S->W時,我們或許可以使用方程式或是重寫指示,S->W這個用文法來解釋的話,就是句子S

形成任何單字的使用方法都屬於等級W,而且所有小孩的話語都適用於這個方程式。

Notice that it would make no sense to ask whether the child, at this stage, knows more adjectives than nouns or whether he has any verbs. Strictly speaking, adjectives, nouns, verbs are modes of functioning, given a complex syntax. But since the syntactic conditions for such functioning are not yet present, we cannot ask whether the infant has verbs. We do not ask whether a fertilized human egg thinks or what the social order among chicks is before they have hatched.

我們可以注意到這好像是沒有意義的去問小孩是否了解,在這個階段裡,小孩所認識的形容詞會比名詞來的多,但是還沒認識所謂的動詞。嚴格來講對於複雜的句法而言,形容詞,名詞,動詞都是功能詞的一部份而已。但是因為這樣的功能詞句法的情況還沒證實,所以我們無法知道嬰兒是否已經可以使用動詞了。就像我們無法知道小雞的社會秩序,在人類的受精卵還沒孵化之前。

The joining of two words in a single utterance is a sign that the initial global category, labeled, is splitting up into two functionally distinct categories. The following example , collected from Braine (1963), Brown and Fraser (1963), Brown and Bellugi (1964), and Ervin (1964), show that the two words are not random concatenations but that a functional distinction is emerging.

“find it” “here sock” “more milk”

“fix it” “here allgone” “more nut”

“drink it” “here is” “more up”

etc. etc. etc.

A paradigm is clearly being formed.

兩個單詞的結合是一個象徵表示最初的全球種類,稱為W,分割成兩個功能不同的種類。以下有舉例,是從1963BraineBrown and Fraser1964Brown and Bellugi,還有Ervin等人所收集而來的,顯示了兩個單詞間不是隨機連鎖的而是出現一種用功能性的差異來做區別的句法。

“find it” “here sock” “more milk”

“fix it” “here allgone” “more nut”

“drink it” “here is” “more up”

etc. etc. etc.

一個詞型的變化正清楚的在形成中。

One of the two words has a higher frequency of occurrence and seems to be a grammatical functor, whereas the other word appears to come from a large pool of lexical items with a great variety of meanings. Braine (1963) has called the functor words the pivot of these two-word sentences. The entire utterance seems to “turn around them.”

兩個單詞的其中一個有很高的出現率而且似乎是文法的函數,但是其他的單詞是從很大的詞彙項目中出現還伴隨著很多種的意義。1963Braine曾經稱這個函數為這些雙詞句的中心。全部的話語似乎都繞著這個函數而旋轉。

It is not always easy to recognize the pivot of the two-word utterances, and we cannot always be sure how to characterize the sentences formally. For instance, “mommy sandwich,” “baby highchair,’ ‘throw daddy,” “pick glove” are all quite typical productions. At present, there are no reliable procedures to demonstrate that the two elements of these sentences belong to two different syntactic categories, although such an assumption is not unreasonable. We may have the primitive subject-predicate distinction.

要辨別出雙詞句的中心這並不總是那麼簡單,而且我們無法每次都可以知道如何正確的表現句子的特性。舉例來說,“mommy sandwich,” “baby highchair,’ ‘throw daddy,” “pick glove”這些就是非常典型的例子。到目前為止,雖然還沒有可信賴的的過程去證明這些句子的兩個元素是屬於兩個不同句法的種類,然而這些假設並不是那麼的沒有道理。我們也許開始有最早的主述語的區別了。

這些雙詞句的結構用圖解的方式來正確的描述在以下的地方:

The structure of these second-stage sentences might be characterized formally by diagrams such as these:

294 Primitive stages in language development

By the time he uses three-word sentences, further differentiations of categories have taken place. We now find utterances such as these:

“fix a Lassie” “my horsie stuck”

“here two sock” “poor Kitty there”

“more nice milk” “that little one”

At this stage, many types of utterances are heard, and it becomes increasingly difficult to describe the child’s syntactic skills by an exhaustive catalogue of phrase-markers. Instead we endeavor to discover the principles by which these structures are recognized and produced.

The last examples cited illustrate, however, the progressive differentiation of syntactic categories. The structure of these sentences may be characterized by postulating a splitting of the earlier category into two, namely a modifier m and a noun N. A tree diagram might look like the following:

294 語言發展的最初階段

直到小孩使用三詞句後,有更不一樣的的類型產生了,我們現在發現了以下的這些話語:

“fix a Lassie” “my horsie stuck”

“here two sock” “poor Kitty there”

“more nice milk” “that little one”

在這個階段,很多種不同的話語被我們所聽到,而且這也變得越來越困難使用片語結構的徹底目錄去描述小孩子的語法技巧。然而,我們會盡力去找出這些被認可的和被產生的結構規則。

這是最後一個用圖示來說明的範例,不過,我們對於語法種類的區別已經越來越進步了,這些句子的結構可能是把早期的種類W區分成兩個部份,這兩個部分稱為修飾詞語m和名詞N。這個樹狀圖看起來就像下面的圖示這樣:

Monday, March 17, 2008

CA204R11.4

CA204R11.4

撰寫人:4754 永恆

Below in alphabetical order is a list of all the terms and definitions that you learned in Chapter 11. Cover the definitions with a sheet of paper, and word your way down the list of terms, defining them to yourself as you go. Repeat this process until you have gone through the list twice without an error. Then, cover the terms and word your way down the list of definitions, providing the correct terms as you go. Repeat this second process until you have gone through the list twice without an error.

在下面的字母順序是你從第十一章學習到的術語和解釋清單。用一張紙把解釋蓋住,依你自己的方法沿著清單往下自己解釋他們。重複這個過程直到你完成這張清單兩次並沒有一個錯誤。然後,蓋著術語並沿著解釋,提供正確的術語。重複這第二個過程直到你完成兩次並沒有一個錯誤。

CA204R01

Amygdala杏仁核

The almond-shaped limbic nucleus that is located in the medial temporal lobe just anterior to the hippocampus; it is thought to link feelings of fear and anxiety to appropriate stimuli and defensive responses.

杏仁狀的邊緣核是位於顳葉中間海馬迴前面;它被認為是連接恐懼和焦慮到適合的刺激和防衛反應。

Supplement

Picture:

http://www.exn.ca/news/images/1998/08/10/19980810-amygdala.jpg

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/39/Constudoverbrain.gif

CA204R02

Hypothalamus下視丘

The diencephalic structure that is located just inferior to the anterior thalamus; electrical stimulation of some areas of the hypothalamus can elicit defensive responses.

間腦的結構是位於丘腦下方;有些下視丘區域的電刺激能夠引起防衛反應。

Supplement

Picture

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b2/Illu_diencephalon_.jpg

http://www2j.biglobe.ne.jp/~fkamiya/HB/images/F1405.jpg

Explanation

http://arbl.cvmbs.colostate.edu/hbooks/pathphys/endocrine/hypopit/anatomy.html

CA204R03

Lateral hypothalamus下視丘側部

The large lateral region of the hypothalamus; large bilateral lesions of this area produce various motor disturbances and a general insensitivity to stimulation.

下視丘的大側部區域;這區域的雙邊大損害產生不同的運動失調和普遍對刺激不敏感。

Supplement

Picture

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:HypothalamicNuclei.PNG

CA204R04

Lateral preoptic area前視區側部

The lateral half of the preoptic region of the hypothalamus; it contains osmoreceptors that respond to increases in extracellular salt concentration.

下視丘的前視區半側;它包含滲透壓感受器去反應增加細胞外鹽濃度。

Supplement

Function

http://www.jneurosci.org/cgi/content/abstract/20/17/6640

CA204R05

Lateral tegmental field大腦腳蓋區側部

An area of the mesencephalic and pontine reticular formation just anterior to the fourth ventricle; it plays a role in male copulatory behavior via a pathway from the ventromedial nucleus.

在第四腦室前面的中腦和橋腦網狀結構的區域;它在男性交配行為中扮演一個經過腹正中核的路徑角色。

Supplement

Fucntion

http://ajpregu.physiology.org/cgi/content/abstract/277/5/R1462

http://www.biomed.cas.cz/physiolres/2000/issue3/jakus.htm

CA204R06

Locus coeruleus藍斑核

A noradrenergic pontine nucleus near the boundary between the pons and midbrain; many of its neurons are active during SWS and inactive during REM sleep.

一個接近於腦橋和中腦邊緣的產生去甲狀腺素的腦橋核;它的核很多在慢波睡眠活躍並在快速動眼期中活不活躍。

Supplement

Explanation

http://www.csbmb.princeton.edu/conte/pdfs/project5/Proj5Pub09.pdf

Picture

http://biocfarm.unibo.it/aunsnc/images/3D%20Objects/Locus%20Coeruleus.gif

CA204R07

Medial preoptic area視前葉中區

The medial area of the preoptic hypothalamus; it plays a role in male copulatory behavior.

視前下視丘中間的區域;它扮演男性交配行為的角色。

Supplement

Picture

http://nawrot.psych.ndsu.nodak.edu/Courses/Psych465.S.02/projects/reproduction/MPOA_files/image002.jpg

Function

http://www.umich.edu/~psycours/531/female_sex_behavior/sld015.htm

CA204R08

Mesotelencephalic dopamine system中腦區域的多巴胺系統

The system of dopaminergic neurons that projects from the tegmentum of the mesencephalon to various telencephalic sites, including frontal cortex, striatum,

septum, cingulate cortex, amygdale, and nucleus accumbens.

多巴胺能核的系統從中腦的大腦腳蓋發射到不同的終腦位置,包括腦額葉皮質、紋狀體、隔膜、扣帶腦皮層、杏仁孔和阿肯柏氏核。

Supplement

Explanation

http://ceci.uprm.edu/~ephoebus/id88.htm

CA204R09

Nucleus accumbens阿肯柏氏核

A nucleus of the ventral striatum that is adjacent to the basal forebrain; it is a major terminal of the mesotelen-cephalic dopamine system.

腹側紋狀體的核接近前腦的基部;它是中腦區域的多巴胺系統一個主要的終點站。

Supplement

Picture

http://www.biocfarm.unibo.it/aunsnc/images/3D%20Objects/Accumbens%20Nucleus.gif

http://www.biovita.fi/nucleus_accumbens.jpg

Function

http://thebrain.mcgill.ca/flash/i/i_03/i_03_cr/i_03_cr_par/i_03_cr_par.html

CA204R10

Orbitofrontal cortex眼窩額皮質

The cortex on the inferior surface of the frontal lobes (orbito means near the eye sockets or orbits); it is thought to be the area through which cortical processing influences the limbic system.

額葉表面下方的皮質(眼眶意思是接近眼窩或眼眶);它是被認為是皮質處理影響邊緣系統的區域。

Supplement

Picture

http://www.dangoldstein.com/dsn/archives/orbitofrontal%20cortex.jpg

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/3/3f/OFC.JPG

撰寫人:4856 海琪

CA205R11 

Paraventricular nucleus

腦室旁核

A nucleus in the dorsal medial region of the hypothalamus just above the dorsomedial nucleus; bilateral lesions to this nucleus or to the fibers that project to it through the ventromedial hypothalamus produce overeating and obesity.

一位在下視丘背內側區域的細胞核,恰好在背內側核的上方;這個細胞核或纖維的雙邊損傷可藉由下視丘腹內側所引發的過度進食以及肥胖而投射出來。

相關網頁:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paraventricular_nucleus

http://www.tafm.org.tw/Data/011/283/200802.htm

相關圖片:

http://www.nature.com/nrd/journal/v5/n11/images/nrd2136-i1.jpg

http://brainmaps.org/index.php?i=paraventricular+nucleus+of+hypothalamus

CA205R12

Periaqurductal gray

導管旁灰質

The area of the mesencephalon around the cerebral aqueduct; it plays a role in female copulatory behavior via a pathway from the ventromedial nucleus.

在中腦環繞大腦導管的區域;經由腹內側核的傳遞路徑,在女性性行為中扮演著重要角色。

CA205R13

Pontine reticular formation

橋腦的網狀構造

The portion of the reticular formation that is located in the pons; it contains cholinergic nuclei that play a role in REM sleep and noradrenergic and serotonergic nuclei that play a role in SWS.

位在橋腦的部分網狀結構,它包含膽鹼激性的神經核,扮演著REM睡眠的角色;也包含了正腎上腺素性和血清素的神經核,扮演著SWS的角色。

SWSSlow Wave Sleep慢波睡眠

相關網頁:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paramedian_pontine_reticular_formation

http://www.britannica.com/eb/topic-499964/reticular-formation

http://www.npi.ucla.edu/sleepresearch/science196/science196.pdf

相關圖片:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Gray694.png

http://www.vet.upenn.edu/research/centers/lnms/remanat.html

CA205R14 

Raphé nuclei

縫核

The vertical sheet of serotonergic nuclei that runs along the midline of the reticular formation; electrical stimulation of some the raphé nuclei can elicit defensive responses and many of its neurons are active during SWS.

是沿著網狀結構中線行走的垂直片血清素性神經核,一些縫核的電刺激能誘出自衛反應以及大多數縫核的神經元在SWS時很活躍。

相關網頁:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raphe_nuclei

http://tw.knowledge.yahoo.com/question/question?qid=1607022210064

相關圖片:

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9b/Gray701.png

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Gray694.png

CA205R15 

Retinohypothalamic tracts

下視丘視網徑

Tracts that leave each eye as part of the optic nerve and project bilaterally to the suprachiasmatic nuclei; the neural paths by which the light-dark cycle influences circadian rhythms.

如部分視神經一樣,下視丘視網徑為離開各眼球和雙側視交叉上核所投射的路徑,其神經的路徑是由光喑週期影響著晝夜性節律。

相關網頁:

http://www.life.uiuc.edu/clockworks/pdfs/1997pacapjneuro.pdf

CA205R16

Sexually dimorphic nucleus

性同質二形核

A nucleus of the medial preoptic area that is several times bigger in male rats than in female rats.

為神經核的內側視交叉前的區域,通常公鼠的會比母鼠的大數倍。

相關網頁:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexually_dimorphic_nucleus

CA205R17 

Subfornical organ

穹窿下器

The structure in the ceiling of to the third ventricle, just below to the fornix, where angiotensin II acts to induce the thirst associated with hypovolemia.

第三腦室的頂部結構,位在穹隆下面,為血管收縮素II誘發口渴與血量減少的地方。

相關網頁:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subfornical_organ

http://www.britannica.com/eb/topic-570668/subfornical-organ

http://www.actaps.com.cn/paper/199901/article/07.htm

http://www.dls.ym.edu.tw/neuroscience/bbb_c.htm

相關圖片:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Gray715.png

CA205R18

Substantia nigra

黑質

A nucleus of the tegmentum; it contains the cell bodies of many the neurons that compose the mesotelencephalic dopamine system.

為蓋膜的神經核;它包括許多神經元的細胞體,組成mesotelencephalic多巴胺系統。

相關網頁:

http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/imagepages/19515.htm

相關圖片:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Cn3nucleus.png

http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:Human_brain_frontal_%28coronal%29_section_description_2.JPG

CA205R19 

Suprachiasmatic nuclei

視交叉上核

A pair of small hypothalamic nuclei that are located just superior to the optic chiasm; the location of the circadian timing mechanism.

一對位於視交叉上方的小下丘腦核,為晝夜節律(24小時為週期)的時間機制的發生位置。

補充資料:

下丘腦與晝夜節律 損毀鼠下丘腦腹側中央部﹐動物攝食﹑飲水和活動的晝夜節律消失。已經發現視交叉上核和下丘腦前區對維持晝夜節律具有重要作用﹐損毀視交叉上核﹐鼠的飲水﹑運動﹑動情週期﹑體溫變化等多種晝夜節律性活動都會消失。視交叉上核接受視系統的纖維傳入﹐並對松果腺的功能有影響。

相關網頁:

http://gibms.cgu.edu.tw/gibms/modules/cjaycontent/groups/physipharm/cv/RCH.html

http://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%99%82%E9%96%93%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8

相關圖片:

http://universe-review.ca/I10-59-suprac.jpg

相關影片:

http://tw.youtube.com/watch?v=5C-YCWyAQXU

CA205R20  

Ventral tegmental area

腹側蓋膜區

The area of the ventral tegmentum medial to the substantia nigra; it contains the cell bodies of many of the neurons that compose the mesotelencephalic dopamine system.

為腹內側蓋膜到黑質的區域;它包括許多神經元的細胞體,組成mesotelencephalic多巴胺系統。

補充資料:

腹側被蓋區(Ventral tegmental area;簡寫為VTAtegmentum是拉丁文中「覆盖」的意思)是中脑的一個區域,也稱為腹側蓋區。這個區域靠近黑質(substantia nigra)與紅核(red nucleus),富含多巴胺與血清素神經元,是兩條主要的多巴胺神經通道(neural pathway)的一部份:

1. 中腦邊緣系統通道(mesolimbic pathway),從VTA通往阿肯伯氏核(nucleus accumbens)。

2. 中腦皮層通道(mesocortical pathway),從VTA通往額葉皮質。

科學家認為腹側被蓋區是愉悅系统或是報償迴路(reward circuit,獎勵作用與行為刺激的主要來源)的一部分。當一個行動產生愉悅的時候,能夠刺激腹側被蓋區;另外中樞神經興奮劑(psychostimulant,例如古柯鹼)也能直接刺激這個區域。因此腹側被蓋區被認為與神經生物學理論中的成癮現象有關。

同時腹側被蓋區也處理許多種情緒與安全感,因此可能與迴避作用(avoidance)及恐懼制約(fear-conditioning)有關。

相關網頁:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ventral_tegmental_area

相關圖片:

http://homepage.psy.utexas.edu/Homepage/Class/Psy341K/Salinas/Disorders03.GIF

CA205R21 

Ventromedial nucleus

腹內側核

The major nucleus of the ventral medial region of the hypothalamus; large bilateral lesions of this nucleus produce overeating and obesity by promoting the conversion of blood glucose to body fat; it also plays a role in female copulatory behavior.

為下視丘腹內側區域的主要神經核;大部分腹內側核的雙邊損傷會引起過度進食及肥胖,是由於它能提升體內的血糖轉換成體脂肪;它在女性性行為亦扮演著重要的角色。

補充資料:

下丘腦與攝食及飲水行為

下丘腦是中樞神經系統中調節攝食和能量代謝的主要部位。下丘腦外側部可能存在攝食中樞,電刺激此區引起攝食增加,損毀此區導致動物攝食減少或拒食。下丘腦腹內側核可能存在飽中樞,電刺激此區引起動物攝食減少,損毀此區導致動物攝食增加而發胖。動物在飢餓或血糖水平降低時,下丘腦外側區神經元活動增加,腹內側核神經元活動減弱;靜脈注入葡萄糖後,下丘腦腹內側核神經元活動增加,下丘腦外側區神經元活動減弱。可見兩中樞神經元活動有交互抑制現象。

單胺能系統在調節食慾中也起重要作用,刺激和損毀下丘腦外側區或腹內側核,引起攝食活動的變化,可能與通過腹內側核的5-羚色胺纖維和通過下丘腦外側區的去甲腎上腺素纖維受刺激或損毀有關。

內源性阿片肽、膽囊收縮素、促甲狀腺激素釋放激素及蛙皮素等均有調節攝食的作用。下丘腦性肥胖,可能與攝食過度、交感與副交感系統不平衡及小腸對糖吸收增強等因素有關。

下丘腦對水平衡的調節包括: 控制抗利尿激素的分泌和釋放; 控制渴感和飲水行為。下丘腦特異性滲透壓感受器可能位於視上核及其鄰近部分,它既能感受滲透壓的變化,又能分泌抗利尿激素。非特異性滲透壓感受器可能位於下丘腦前外側,對滲透壓刺激、聲光等非損傷性刺激都發生反應。

機體內缺水導致血量減少,從而既可刺激容量(牽張)感受器,作用於下丘腦來調節渴,飲和抗利尿激素的分泌;又可刺激腎臟釋放腎素,腎素使血管緊張素無轉變為血管緊張素,後者既促進醛固酮分泌導致腎對鈉和水的重吸收的加強,又刺激下丘腦引起渴感和抗利尿激素的分泌。血管緊張素嗜飲作用的中樞受體最敏感部位是穹窿下器官,第三腦室腹前部和隔區。

飲水中樞靠近攝食中樞。電刺激此區,使動物飲水增多,損毀此區使動物飲水減少乃至不飲,臨床觀察及動物實驗表明,損毀視上核和室旁核區,可產生尿崩症

相關網頁:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ventromedial_nucleus

相關圖片:

http://brainmaps.org/index.php?i=ventromedial+nucleus+of+hypothalamus

相關影片:

http://tw.youtube.com/watch?v=s1sZ47s8h_M