LBT276-278姿蓉

LBT276-278姿蓉

II. PRELANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

(1) Articulation

Sounds emitted by very young infants have recently been investigated by Ringel and Kluppel (1964), Bosma and Lind (1962), and Fisichelli et al., (1961), each using set of instruments. The difficulties and pitfalls of sound analysis of the prelanguage child have been discussed by Lane and Sheppard (1965) who have contributed a computer-based technique to this line of investigation. Although the purely naturalistic approach to the problem is clearly unsatisfactory, instrumental analysis still leaves much to be desired. A warning is particularly pertinent with regard to the uncritical use of the commercially available sound spectrograph (the “sonagraph” manufactured by Kay electric). This instrument does not perform well when the fundamental frequency of the speaker’s voice approaches 300 cps, which is the case in children under five years, particularly in the neonates. There are, nevertheless, certain generalizations that may be made safely from this kind of analysis.

二、語言前期階段的發展

（1）構音

近年來Ringel和Kluppel（1964）、Bosma和Lind（1962）和Fisichelli et al.（1961）各用不同的一套儀器設備來調查研究小小嬰兒發出的聲音。語言前期兒童語音分析的困難和缺失已經被Lane和Sheppard（1965）探討，他們也促成一套電腦輔助方法運用在這領域的研究。雖然對於這個問題完全自然的方法是確定不足的，但是工具格的分析仍然有很大的進步空間，關於商業用聲譜圖（由Kay電製造的聲譜圖）的不當使用有恰當的一個警告機制。當說話者聲音的基礎頻率接近300周/秒時這個儀器不能發揮良好的效用，而300周/秒的頻率正是五歲以下的小孩尤其是嬰兒的語音頻率，不過仍然有一些普遍的且可靠方法來分析兒童的語音。

Naturalistic observations as well as acoustic studies indicate that there are two distinct types of vocalization and that each has its own development history. The first type includes all sound related to crying. It is present at birth (and potentially present even before the end of normal gestation). It undergoes modifications during childhood and then persists throughout life. These sounds as well as other sounds more immediately related to vegetative functions seem to be quite divorced from the developmental history of the second type of vocalization, namely all of those sounds which eventually merge into the acoustic productions of speech.

自然觀察法和聲學研究都指出發生有兩種不同的類型，每一種都有各自的發展歷史。第一種是所有跟「哭」有關的聲音，這在出生的時候開始存在（其實在自然懷孕的末期就存在了），在兒童時期經過修改後就持續一輩子了，這些聲音和其他對於生長功能有較立即關係的聲音一樣似乎和第二型發聲有極大的差異，最後這些聲音都會融進言語聲學的產製。

This second type of sound emerges only after the sixth to eighth week. It begins with brief, little cooing sounds that fairly regularly follow the smiling response. It has the characteristics of a reflex that may be elicited by a specific stimulus, namely a nodding object resembling a face in the visual field of the baby (Spitz and Wolf, 1946), (Lenneberg, Rebelsky, and Nichols, 1965). Cooing sounds are obtained most easily and indiscriminately, however, between the tenth and thirteenth week; after this age, the visual and social stimuli become more and more differentiated. Soon it is necessary that the face be a familiar one in order to elicit smiling and cooing.

第二型的聲音要在六-八週後才會出現，這類型的聲音一開始是規律的出現在微笑反應後短小的咕咕聲，這個特性可能是其他特定刺激誘發出來的反應，像是一個寶寶看起來是臉的點頭物體（Spitz and Wolf, 1946）, （Lenneberg, Rebelsky, and Nichols, 1965）。咕咕聲是最容易且隨意能取得的聲音，然而再第十-十三週之後視覺和社會的刺激要越來越多變化。

The spectrograms of crying noises illustrate the absence of any articulation, apart from opening or closing the mouth. In essence, the infant simply blows his horn without operating the keys. What little modulation is present, is achieved primarily by laryngeal changes and variations in subglottal pressure. The control of voicing mechanisms is not yet well-developed in the two-week old, causing the fundamental frequency to waver irregularly over periods of 20 to 50 msec. This creates the variation in the density of the vertical stria, seen in Fig. 7.1.

光譜圖說明哭聲不存在任何除了開合嘴巴外的發聲，這就好比小嬰兒只會對著喇叭吹氣並不會操作按鍵，直到喉頭和上聲門壓力的改變才讓嬰兒能完成發聲，因為波形轉換器顯示的基礎頻率在每秒20-50週期間不規則變動（圖7.1垂直條紋的密度變化），所以兩週大的嬰兒控制發聲機制的能力尚未發展。

圖7.1. 一個兩週大男孩精力充沛的哭聲頻譜圖

The cooing sounds that begin to appear toward the end of the second month are acoustically fairly distinct from crying sounds. Their duration is characteristically about half a second, and energy is distributed over the frequency spectrum in a way that soon reminds us of vowel formants. This impression is reinforced because cooing contrasts with crying in that it shows resonance modulation almost at once in addition to fundamental frequency modulation. In other words, during cooing some articulatory organs are moving (mostly tongue), whereas during crying they tend to be held relatively still.

在兩個月末的十後開始出現的咕咕聲在聽覺上能正當的與哭聲做區別，典型的咕咕聲大約持續半秒鐘而它的能量散佈在頻譜圖上，在某種程度上它能使我們很快的想起母音的共振峰。這個印象會被增強是因為咕咕聲和哭聲相比，咕咕聲除了展現立刻的共鳴調變外還有基礎頻率的調變。換言之，在發出咕咕聲的期間內一些構音器官（大部分的舌頭）正在移動；反之，在發出哭聲的期間構音器官傾向於保持比較不動的。

Although cooing sounds are “vowel-like”, we must guard against describing them in terms of specific speech sounds of English, for example. They are neither acoustically, nor motorically, nor functionally speech sounds. For instance, their acoustic onset differs from the more common vocalic onset in Germanic languages by having either no glottal stop at beginning or an overaspirated glottal stop such as never occurs in standard English. Early vocalizations seem to be different motorically from adult speech sounds, because the articulating organs move somewhat erratically and discoordinately.

雖然咕咕聲聽起來很像母音，但是我們必須確實用像是英語的特殊語音術語來描述他們，咕咕聲既非聽覺上的也非動作或功能上的語音，舉例來說，咕咕聲的聽覺開始有別於德語常見的母音起始，不是在一開始的時候沒有聲門閉鎖音就是伴隨著過度送氣的聲門閉鎖音，而這是在標準英語中沒有的。兒童早期的發聲和成人的語音在動作上看起來有些不同，是因為構音器官移動有點不穩定、不協調。

By about six months the cooing sounds become more differentiated into vocalic and consonantal components. New articulatory modulations appear.

到了大約六個月左右咕咕聲有較多的變化，然後變成由母音和子音為構音要素的咕咕聲，出現新的構音調整。

There are varying degrees of sound attenuation: they still occur somewhat randomly. This produces spectrographic patterns that show a general configuration not unlike that of connected speech; but it is important to stress once more that the analysis of these sounds makes it quite clear that they may not yet be regarded as isolated occurrences of speech sounds of a natural language. The child is articulating, but the sound patterns are very different from nonsense words that follow the pfonological rules of English. Figure 7.2 demonstrates the difference between the sound productions of the prelanguage child and adult sound production. A mother who is imitating the cooing sounds of her own child makes very different noises from her baby.

聲音衰減有不同的程度：他們仍然會稍稍隨機的出現。聲音衰減產生頻譜圖的樣式，而這些樣式顯示了一個普遍的結構，不僅像和說話有關的結構，而且再一次強調這些聲音的分析是重要的，分析使得咕咕聲可能還不被視為自然語言語音的獨立的發聲。小孩正在構音但是語音樣本和符合英語語音規則胡言亂語非常不同。圖7.2證明語言前期階段小孩產製聲音和大人產製聲音間的差異。一位模仿她自己小孩咕咕聲的母親和她的嬰兒發出的咕咕聲有相當大的差異

FIG. 7.2. (a) Spectrogram of a three-months-old boy cooing; (b) mother imitating her child after listening many times to a tape-loop on which the baby’s noises are recorded.

圖7.2. (a) 一個三個月大男孩的咕咕聲；(b) 母親在多次聆聽錄有嬰兒聲音的錄音帶後模仿她的小孩

Acoustic analysis of most vocalizations (except crying) throughout the first year continues to show evidence of poorly coordinated interplay among respiratory, laryngeal, and oropharyngeal mechanisms.

整個第一年大部分發聲（除了哭聲外）的聽覺分析仍然證明缺乏協調呼吸、喉嚨和口咽機制中的相互作用。

The articulatory signs of immaturity are, interestingly enough, not correlated with the onset of language proper. The first identifiable words occur at a time when articulation is still coarse. The attainment of good control over the motor acts necessary for fluent speech is not the milestone at which language has its fires beginnings.

十分有趣的是對應適當語言起始的未成熟構音記號是不正確的，當構音仍然粗劣的時候，第一個可辨識的字詞出現，為了流暢說話的良好運動行為必需的控制能力不是語言最初開始的里程碑。