Resources for Communication Problems

Sunday, December 30, 2007

NC455G海琪

NC455G李海琪 9580056

Find relevant pictures, videos and Chinese translation, if you could. I give you some examples. Do the rest by yourself!

撰寫人:9580056 李海琪

blood pressure

Measurement of the force exerted by blood against the walls of blood vessels during ventricular systole (contraction of the heart, by which the blood is sent through the aorta for systemic circulation).

血壓:是指當心室收縮時血管內的血液的在單位面積上的側壓力(心臟的收縮,血液主要是經由主動脈的系統循環),即壓強。

習慣以毫米汞柱為單位。心臟有收縮及放鬆期,當心臟收縮,左心室便會將血液泵出到主動脈,主動脈壓產生最高血壓,又稱收縮壓。接下來,心臟會舒張,血液流入右心房,這個時候壓力最低,稱為低血壓或舒張壓。

blood urea nitrogen (BUN)

Examination of the presence of nitrogen from urea in the blood for determining the normalcy of kidney function.

血尿素氮尿素:是蛋白質、氨基酸代謝產物。由腎臟排泄,測定血液中尿素氮的濃度,可以用來評估腎臟排泄尿素的功能是否正常。其參考值為6-24mg/dl

異常說明──

1.值:腎功能衰退、腎炎、泌尿道阻塞、尿道發炎等腎臟疾病或其他非腎臟因素,如高蛋白飲食、脫水……等。並須合併尿液與肌酸肝檢查一起評估腎臟功能。

2.值:蛋白質攝取不足、肝硬化、心衰竭、營養不良等。

bony labyrinth

Represents a series of cavities in the petrous portion of the temporal bone, including the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibule.

骨性迷路:指在內耳岩狀部分的顳骨內的一系列空腔,包括耳蝸、半規營以及前庭。

http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=14302&rendTypeId=4

http://student.britannica.com/eb/art-532/The-two-labyrinths-of-the-inner-ear

人體的平衡是由內耳(也稱為迷路,labyrinth) 所控制。內耳包括骨性迷路(bony labyrinth)以及其中的膜性迷路(membranous labyrinth)。骨性迷路包括了三個部份:前庭(vastibule)、耳蝸(cochlea)和半規管(semicircular canal)。膜性迷路則包括前庭內的橢圓囊(utricle)和球囊(saccule)、耳蝸內的耳蝸管(cochlear duct) 、以及骨性半規管內的膜性半規管(membranous semicircular canal)(下圖)

前庭是骨性迷路的中央部份,此處有二個來自中耳的開口,即卵圓窗(oual windows)與圓窗(round windows),以及三個內耳半規管的開口。橢圓囊和球囊具有膜性壁,懸吊於前庭中。

brachial plexus

Network of spinal nerve fibers exiting the ventral rami of C5-T1 nerves to supply the upper limb.

臂神經叢:由第五到第八對頸部脊髓神經的腹側分支,和第一對胸部脊髓神經的大部分腹側分支組合而成的神經網路。

http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/images/ency/fullsize/9129.jpg

http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/imagepages/9129.htm

http://intraspec.ca/images/brachialplexus.jpg

Brachium

Arm-like fiber bundle. The brachium of the inferior colliculus is an auditory fiber bundle that connects the inferior colliculus to the thalamus. The brachium of the superior colliculus mediates visual information and bypasses the lateral geniculate body of the thalamus on its way to the pretectal region in midbrain.

肱肌(上臂)手臂似的纖維束。肱肌在下的丘是聽神經束,與視丘相連接;肱肌的下丘傳遞視覺訊息和分流視丘的外側膝狀體。

http://www.brainviews.com/abFiles/DrwCerbped.jpg

http://www.brainviews.com/abFiles/DrwCerbped.htm

brachium conjunctivum

See SUPERIOR CEREBELLAR PEDUNCLE.

結合臂:連接小腦與腦幹和運動皮質的神經束。

http://www.brainviews.com/abFiles/DrwCerbped.jpg

http://www.brainviews.com/abFiles/DrwCerbped.htm

【解】肱

brachium conjunctivumcerebelli ·其它相關字 [] 小腦上臂,().

http://dict.vghtpe.gov.tw/search.php?word=brachium+conjunctivum&Submit=+%ACd%B8%DF+&prefix=

http://starklab.slu.edu/sheepbrain/sheepbrain20.jpg

http://starklab.slu.edu/neuro/SheepBrain.htm

brachium pontis

See MIDDLE CEREBELLAR PEDUNCLE.

連接小腦與橋腦底部的神經束。

Anatomical picture? Chinese translation of this term?

Bradykinesia

Slowness in the initiation of voluntary motor movements.

運動遲緩:自主的肌肉動作起始緩慢。

Anatomical picture? Chinese translation of this term? Vidoe?

brady- prefix Definition: slow bradycardia [<> bradus]

http://encarta.msn.com/encnet/features/dictionary/DictionaryResults.aspx?refid=1861592329

http://myword.info/sendword.php?brady_1-a

Brain

Mass of nervous tissue located in the cranial cavity.

大腦:位於頭顱內的神經組織中心。

Brainstem

Stem part of the brain, consisting of midbrain, pons, and medulla.

腦幹:大腦的連接部分,由中腦、橋腦以及髓質組成。

brainstem auditory evoked potentials

Technique used for measuring brainstem neuronal responses to controlled auditory stimuli.

腦幹誘發電位:測量由聽覺刺激所誘發的腦幹神經反應技術。

http://www.lsu.edu/deafness/VCNA.GIF

http://www.lsu.edu/deafness/VetClinNA.htm

http://www.argentumdogos.com/nosotros_eng.htm

http://www.vertigo-dizziness.com/imgs/_content/cera_mapeado.gif

http://www.vertigo-dizziness.com/english/auditory_pathologies/investigations.html

brain waves

Electrical activity produced as a result of action potentials of brain cells.

腦波:電刺激在腦細胞產生動作電位的結果,形成所謂的腦波。

brachial arches

Five pairs of arched embryologic structures that develop into laryngeal, pharyngeal and facial muscles. Remnants of arches in lower vertebrates that give rise to muscles for specialized functions like articulation, phonation, and swallowing in the humans.

五組發展成喉部、咽部和臉部肌肉的肧胎學上的原型結構。而剩餘的結構在脊椎動物中則發展成負責特定功用的肌肉,如人類的發音方式、發聲以及吞嚥。

http://images.google.com/images?svnum=10&hl=en&q=brachial+arches&btnG=Search+Images

http://www.informatics.jax.org/searches/image.cgi?3177

http://www.informatics.jax.org/pix/fetch_pixels.cgi?id=2342

http://www.informatics.jax.org/searches/image.cgi?2139

broad-based gait

Walking patterns characterized by placing the feet far apart. Often resulting from cerebellar injury.

特徵為腳步距離很遠的一種走路方式,通常是由於小腦病變所造成的。

Broca aphasia

Type of aphasia associated with a lesion in lower premotor cortex (Broca Area) and characterized by impaired verbal output.

布洛卡失語症:一種在前感覺皮層受損的失語症,特徵是使一個人無法講話、但可以了解語言內容;無法用字詞,說話緩慢並且不連貫。

Brodmann areas

Approximately 50 or so brain areas identified and mapped by Bromann on the basis of its cellular cytoarchitectonics.

接近50或相近的腦部區域由Bromann所確認及標記,是基於其細胞構造而區分的。

Find more information for this entry! This is very important!

http://fourier.eng.hmc.edu/e180/handouts/visualcortex/node5.html

Bronchi

Branches of the respiratory passageway.

支氣管:呼吸路徑的分枝。

brownian motion

Physical property of water molecules, which refers to their constant motion and random movements in all directions.

分子運動:水分子的物理性質,即分子往不同方向的常態移動及任意移動。

Brown-Séquard syndrome

Hemi-spinal cord lesion resulting in spastic paralysis and proprioception loss in the body ipsilateral to the lesion and pain and temperature loss occurring contralateral.

半脊髓的損傷造成同側身體由痙攣所引起的麻痺及本體感受受損,對側身體發生疼痛及温度等感覺的損傷。

http://www.aan.com/familypractice/html/Chapter1%20The%20Neurologic%20Examination_files/image034.jpg

http://www.aan.com/familypractice/html/chp1p2.htm

bulbar lesion

Lesions mostly related to the medulla.

延髓的損傷:所造成損傷與脊髓有關。

bular palsy

Limb paralysis secondary to the involvement of the motor nuclei in the medulla.

延髓的麻痺:由脊髓中的運動細胞核間接形成的麻痺。

bulbar

adjective: involving the medulla oblongata (Example: "Bulbar paralysis")

http://www.onelook.com/?w=bulbar

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulbar_palsy

http://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/cgi-bin/omd?bulbar+palsy

Quick definitions (palsy)

noun: a condition marked by uncontrollable tremor

noun: loss of the ability to move a body part

http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=palsy

http://www.onelook.com/?w=*palsy&ls=a

calcarine fissure

Located on the midsagittal surface of the occipital lobe. Separates the primary visual cortex into lower and upper opercula.

禽距裂隙:位於枕葉的中矢狀縫表面,分開了主要視覺皮質成上、下兩部分的蓋狀物。

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcarine_fissure

http://www.bartleby.com/107/illus727.html

callosal sulcus

Midsagittally located sulcus separating the corpus callosum and cingulated gyrus.

胼胝體的腦溝:位於腦溝的中矢狀縫,分開了小體胼胝體以及扣帶回。

工具書:

維基百科-http://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki

http://w3.tyh.com.tw/htm/epaper/0072/healthinspect1.htm

運動生理學站http://epsport.ccu.edu.tw/epsport/week/show.asp?repno=59&page=1

小小神經科學:大腦和語言

──http://www.dls.ym.edu.tw/neuroscience/lang_c.htm

http://www.dls.ym.edu.tw/neuroscience/lang_c.htm

NC455G永恆

NC455G梁永恆 9580054

撰寫人:9580054 梁永恆

Find relevant pictures, videos and Chinese translation, if you could. I give you some examples. Do the rest by yourself!

Axonal regeneration

Reconstitution of an injured axon. Most prevalent in the peripheral nervous system.

受損軸突的復原。大部分普遍在周圍神經系統之中。

http://www.sapphirebioscience.com/images/wallcharts/Abcam_Axonal_Regeneration_detail.jpg

Babinski reflex

Dorsal flexion of the great toe and fanning of other toes on being stroked on the sole of the foot. Indicating pyramidal tract (upper motor neuron) pathology in adults. Named after French neurologist Joseph Babinski.

敲打腳底大腳趾會蜷曲,其他腳趾會展開。用來指示出成人的椎體(上行運動神經)病變。以法國神經學家之名字Joseph Babinski來命名。

http://academic.scranton.edu/faculty/kosmahle1/courses/pt351/lab351/babinski.htm

Motor Exam: Normal Exam: Lower Extremities - Plantar Reflex

PediNeuroLogic Exam: 3 Month Old: Normal: Reflexes - Plantar Refle...

PediNeuroLogic Exam: Newborn: Normal: Reflexes - Plantar Reflex

Ballism

Violent flinging movements usually involving one side of the body. Associated with a lesion of the subthalamic nucleus.

其中一側身體常有猛烈的揮動行為。與丘腦下核受損有關。

Barany caloric test

Clinically undertaken to evaluate vestibular functioning in cases of inner ear disease using the injection of water of different temperatures into the auditory canal. Cold water produces rotatory nystagmus toward the opposite direction. Whereas warm fluid triggers nystagmus toward the injected (ipsilateral) side.

在臨床上,假如發生內耳病變,則透過注射不同溫度的水進入聽管中,用此種方法來評估其前庭功能。冷水則會使眼球向相反方向產生轉動,然而暖水引起注射方向(身體的同側)的轉動

Basal ganglia

Group of subcortical nuclei (caudate, globus pallidus, and putamen) located within the white matter in each cerebral hemisphere. Important in movement regulation.

皮層下細胞核群(尾核、蒼白球、和晶狀核外殼)存在於每一個大腦半球的白質之中,在協調運動較為重要。

Basal lamina

Basal plate zone of the embryonic neural tube ventral to the sulcus limitans. Ventral gray columns of the spinal cord and motor centers of the brain develop from this region, which is also called the basal plate.

連接溝膜的胚胎神經管腹側的基底版區,脊髓腹側灰質和大腦運動神經中樞是從這區域發出的,這個區域亦可稱作基底版。

Basis pedunculi

Also called pes peduncle or crus cerebri. Includes descending motor fibers in the midbrain on each side.

亦稱為腳莖或大腦腳莖。包括中腦每側的向下運動纖維。

Basis pontis

Basal or inferior region of the pons.

腦橋的基本或次等區域。

Bell palsy

Facial paralysis causing paralysis on one side of the face. Paralyzed muscles are pulled toward unaffected side.

面神經痲痺引起一側面部癱瘓。癱瘓的肌肉會被拉向正常一側。

Betz cells

Large motor (pyramidal) cells located in the primary motor cortex.

存在於主要運動皮質的大運動細胞(椎體)

Bifurcate

A state of dividing into two branches or divisions.

分成兩束狀態或分割。

Bilaminar embryo

Human embryo in the 2nd week of gestation.

懷孕兩星期的人體胚胎。

Bilateral

Referring to two sides of the body.

指軀體兩側。

Bilateral innervations

Mostly refers to cranial nerve motor nuclei that receive innervations from both motor cortices, where each pyramidal tract provides both ipsilateral (minor) and contralateral (stronger) innervations.

大多數指頭部運動神經核從兩運動皮質接受神經刺激,在這每一個椎體通道提供同側(較弱)及對側(較強)的神經刺激。

Binocular vision

Visual field area simultaneously processed in both eyes.

兩眼同時處理訊息的視覺區域。

Biopsy

Removal of tissue from the living body, usually for microscopic examination.

從生命體中進行組織的移除,通常是用作顯微鏡的觀察。

Biorhythms

Circadian (with a cycle of 24 hr) biologic rhythms regulating body homeostasis such as the sleepwake cycle.

協調生命體體內平衡的生理節奏(24小時為一毎循環),例如睡眠清醒的循環。

Bitemporal hemianopia

Loss of temporal visual fields for both eyes.

___顳的視覺區域損失。

Blast

Immature cell.

未成熟細胞。

Blastocyst

Stage in the 1st week of human development.

人類發展的第一個星期。

Blastomere

Cell resulting from cleavage of a fertilized ovum.

受精卵分裂形成的細胞。

[blasto- + G. meros, part]

http://activate.lww.com/semdweb/internetsomd/ASP/1495941.asp

blasto-

prefix

Definition:

bud, germ blastomycosis

[<> blastos "bud, germ, sprout"]

http://encarta.msn.com/encnet/features/dictionary/DictionaryResults.aspx?refid=1861591086

Quick definitions (-mere)

() A combining form meaning part, portion; as, blastomere, epimere.

http://www.onelook.com/?w=-mere

Blind spot

Retinal area, that contains no photoreceptors, located 15° medial to the visual axis and representing the optic nerve (cranial nerve II) fibers exit the retina.

不包括感光體的視網膜區,與視軸呈15度和扮演視神經(第二對腦神經)在視網膜中出口的角色。

Blood

Oxygen-containing fluid that circulates through the heart, arteries, and capillaries.

通過心臟、動脈和毛細血管而循環的含氧液體。

Blood-brain barrier

Physiologic barrier unique to brain arteries that prevents noxious substances in the blood from entering the brain.

大腦動脈獨特的生理性屏障,用來防止血液中有害物質進入大腦。

http://www.stanford.edu/class/humbio103/ParaSites2005/Ivermectin/images/blood%20brain%20barrier.gif

http://www.stanford.edu/class/humbio103/ParaSites2005/Ivermectin/mechanism%20of%20action.htm

blood-brain barrier

The main function of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) is to protect the brain from changes in the levels in the blood of ions, amino acids, peptides, and other substances. The barrier is located at the brain blood capillaries, which are unusual in two ways. Firstly, the cells which make up the walls of these vessels (the endothelium) are sealed together at their edges by tight junctions that form a key component of the barrier. These junctions prevent water-soluble substances in the blood from passing between the cells and therefore from freely entering the fluid environment of the brain cells. Secondly, these capillaries are enclosed by the flattened ‘end-feet’ of astrocytic cells (one type of glia), which also act as a partial, active, barrier. Thus the only way for water-soluble substances to cross the BBB is by passing directly through the walls of the cerebral capillaries, and because their cell membranes are made up of a lipid/protein bilayer, they also act as a major part of the BBB.

http://content.answers.com/main/content/img/oxford/Oxford_Body/019852403x.blood-brain-barrier.1.jpg

http://www.answers.com/topic/blood-brain-barrier?cat=health

NC454G柔儀

NC454G李柔儀 9580052

撰寫人:9580052 李柔儀

atherosclerotic plaque

Lesion causing plaque resulting from accumulated fatty substances involving the tunica media of an artery and leading to obstruction.

Chinese term? Find out the Chinese translation for each term! Explain in Chinese?

定義:The process of aorta calcification is started by an irritation of the outer cell-layer of the innermost tissue of the artery – the endothelium.

出處: www.lef.org/.../oct2005_cover_arteries_01.htm

athetosis

Involuntary,slow writhing (constant flexion and extension)movements of limbs subsequent to basal ganglia pathology)

Chinese term? Explain in Chinese?

http://dict.vghtpe.gov.tw/search.php?word=athetosis&Submit=+%ACd%B8%DF+&prefix=

[G. athetos, without position or place]

http://activate.lww.com/semdweb/internetsomd/ASP/1493609.asp

Origin: Gr. Athetos = not fixed

http://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/cgi-bin/omd?athetosis

Athetosis

定義:This animation illustrates the location of basal ganglia in the brain. Injury to the basal ganglia may result in athetosis (constant writhing movements of the body).

Athetosis

出處:nursenewscenter.blogspot.com/2007/10/new-york...

atonia

Lack of muscle tone.

Chinese term? Explain in Chinese?

定義:When awake, humans and several other vertebrates show low- voltage (10-30µV), fast (16-25 Hz) EEG activity. When relaxed, humans also show sinusoidal alpha activity of about 20-40 µV and 10 Hz. Passage from wakefulness to non-REM sleep is characterized by progressively slower frequencies and higher voltage activities in the EEG. Non-REM sleep comprises four stages (Figure 47-1).

圖片:

出處:www.npi.ucla.edu/.../SleepDream/sleep_dreams.htm

atrophy

Wasting away of muscle tissue,include reduction in muscle fiber diameter (weakening of the force of contraction owing to disuse atrophy)or disintegration of muscle fibers (denervation atrophy).This is associated with lower motor neuron pathologies.

Chinese term? Explain in Chinese?

定義: These two brains have both had their arachnoid membranes removed. The top brain is normal. The brain underneath is from a patient with Alzheimer's diseasem demonstrating significant cortical atrophy.

出處:missinglink.ucsf.edu/.../Case1/Case1Gross.htm

atrophy of denervation

Severely reduced muscle mass with loss of muscle fibers,resulting from prolonged loss (6 months or more)of lower motor neuron innervation of these fibers.

Chinese term? Explain in Chinese?

定義:Diseases that affect the lower motor neuron at any point cause myofiber atrophy. The motor neuron exerts a trophic influence on muscle. This influence is mediated by impulses and by chemical substances (trophic factors) which, acting through the synapse, influence protein synthesis in muscle. Myofibers that lose their innervation become angular and shrink. They lose 80% to 90% of their mass within a few months. At an extreme stage of atrophy, virtually all sarcoplasm is lost and the myofiber is reduced to a cluster of nuclei. In the process of denervation, there is loss and disarray of myofilaments but no myonecrosis occurs. Myofiber atrophy can be best denervation atrophyappreciated in cross sections.

出處: www.neuropathologyweb.org/chapter13/chapter13

atrophy of disuse

Reduction in muscle body mass without loss of muscle fibers(cells)caused by decreased muscular activity.

Chinese term? Explain in Chinese?

定義:Atrophy of skeletal muscle. This type of atrophy follows interruption of the nerve supply to a muscle or part of a muscle. There are two possible causes for the atrophy 1) disuse 2) loss of nerve supply. The presence of cross striations indicate that this is striated muscle and the peripheral location of the nuclei distinguishes it from cardiac muscle

出處:www.pathology.vcu.edu/.../lab2_1.html

attenuation reflex

Reflexive contraction of the middle ear muscles causing a decrease in auditory sensitivity.

定義:The acoustic enclosure comprises a box, on which is mounted at least one electro-acoustic transducer, and a vent which together with the box produces a bass-reflex system with a specified bass-reflex resonant frequency. The vent comprises means of attenuation at the bass-reflex resonant frequency. Included is an audiovisual apparatus comprising a display device and such an enclosure

Enclosure and audio-visual apparatus comprising same

出處:www.freepatentsonline.com/7111706.html

audiogram

Graphic representation of hearing thresholds for tones at various frequencies.

定義:The audiogram is a plot of a person’s hearing thresholds. Across the top of the audiogram is the pitch of the tones, from low to high pitch, plotted in frequency from 250 to 8000 Hertz (Hz). The level in decibels (dB) is plotted down the side. The normal range of hearing is from 0 to 20 decibels hearing level (dBHL).

Audiogram

出處:depts.washington.edu/.../hl_audiogram.htm

audiometry

Assessment of hearing sensitivity for a range of pure tones using the decibels(Dbspl)scale.

定義:Audiometry is the testing of a person's ability to hear various sound frequencies. The test is performed with the use of electronic equipment called an audiometer. This testing is usually administered by a trained technician called an audiologist.

Audiogram for determining the audibility curve for pure-tone hearing loss at various frequency levels.

出處:www.answers.com/topic/audiometry-2

auditory association

Brain region located around the primary auditory cortex ,responsible for the elaboration of auditory information.

定義:So, how does it work? See that large blue area (auditory association/memory of sound)-that's where your brain stores sound. It's right by the auditory cortex (that small maroon blob). Look how big Auditory Association is compared to Visual Association (red, toward the back). Now, where we're trying to go is the Prefrontal Cortex-that's where action happens. Sight has to go from your eyes (front, obviously) to the back of your head to where it's processed in the brown, then to the storage area. And it's a long way from the Prefrontal Cortex-up where things happen.

出處:sales.kzia.com/WhyRadio/tabid/126/Default.aspx

auditory reflexes

Protective simultaneous head and eye movements in response to loud auditory stimuli.

定義:The sound is reflected back as an otoacoustic signal emission of the cochlea. This OAE signal is the audio input used by the invention. Audio input transducer 76, including a 2f.sub.1 -f.sub.2 cochlear distortion, converts the audio input into a response signal. Optionally, the audio input transducer may be an acoustic microphone. In a first embodiment, first and second audio output transducers 74 and 75 and audio input transducer 76 are non-invasively coupled to the human auditory canal of the subject. The non-invasively coupling may be accomplished with a plug 77. Plug 77 may be manufactured of soft foam or soft plastic or any other suitable material. In one embodiment, the plug has three tubes, 78, 79 and 80, passing through it. The proximal end of each tube is connected to the first and second audio output generators and the distal end of each tube terminates in the auditory canal of the subject.

 Non-invasive method and apparatus for monitoring intracranial pressure

出處:www.freepatentsonline.com/6589189.html

auditory system

Neuroanatomic system ,beginning in the inner ear,passing the brainstem,thalamus(medial geniculate body),and terminating in the auditory cortex.Responsible for auditory perception.

定義:An introductory course in the molecular biology of the auditory system. First half focuses on human genetics and molecular biology, covering fundamentals of pedigree analysis, linkage analysis, molecular cloning, and gene analysis as well as ethical/legal issues, all in the context of an auditory disorder. Second half emphasizes molecular approaches to function and dysfunction of the cochlea, and is based on readings and discussion of research literature.

The inner ear.

出處:ocw.mit.edu/.../CourseHome/

autoimmunity

Condition in which antibodies attack the body’s own normal tissues.

自體免疫性

http://www.hk-doctor.com/html/dict.php

定義:Autoimmunity is the erroneous production of antibodies against ones own tissues (e.g., Nerve demyelination in Multiple sclerosis, MS). Autoimmunity is an exception, rather than to the rule. This is because the cells of each person have a unique code of self-antigens (Major Histocompatiability Complexes, MHC) embedded in the plasma membrane so that immune system can distinguish your own cells from foreign cells.

出處:www.colorado.edu/.../IPHY3430-200/20immune.html

autonomic dysfunctions

Neurologic disorders involving pupil dilation/constriction,sexual activity,perspiration,blood pressure ,thirst,hunger,urination,and gastric function.

定義:In medicine there is a contemporary movement, which focuses on evidence-based medicine. This approach follows ideas of Archie Cochrane who has started to discuss outcome and effectiveness of medical studies and treatment. Practitioners should be sure about the appropriate evidence of choosen medication and methods to achieve evidence. Therefore the statistical tool of metaanalysis and systematic review methods of published studies was been developed further to compare studies with same methods, samples and outcome. This movement of medical research has become more and more an evaluation tool for the effectiveness of treatment methods and within the medical range. The article "Evaluation of Music Therapy in German Neurorehabilitation - Starting Point for European Comparability" from Annkathrin Pöpel, Silke Jochims, Norbert van Kampen, Holger Grehl is based on a talk given at the European Conference for Music Therapy in Naples, Italy in April 2001. They have done a literature review on music therapy in neurological rehabilitation. Read what they found out about the work being done in Europe.

出處:www.ispub.com/.../ijn/vol2n1/vitamin.xml

autonomic ganglia

Group of nuclei located in the peripheral nervous system that mediate impulses from the central nervous system to various visceral organs ,cardiac muscles,smooth muscles,and glands.

定義:Autonomic nerves (in blue)--sympathetic and parasympathetic--regulate much of the body without our conscious knowledge. Sympathetic nerves branch from spinal nerves (in white) and form a chain of ganglia that sends fibers to the organs. Parasympathetic nerves, including the important vagus, usually reverse the action of sympathetic ones.

Art:Autonomic nerves (in blue)--sympathetic and parasympathetic--regulate much of the body without our conscious knowledge. Sympathetic nerves branch from spinal nerves (in white) and form a chain of ganglia that sends fibers to the organs. Parasympathetic nerves, including the important vagus, usually reverse the action of sympathetic ones.

出處:concise.britannica.com/ebc/art-53714/Autonomi...

autonomic nervous system

Division of the peripheral nervous system with sympathetic and parasympathetic fibers. Works subconsciously and innervates lood vessels,internal organs,and glands.

定義:The autonomic nervous system controls involuntary homeostatic mechanisms
that control target cells in exocrine and endocrine glands, smooth muscle in the
intestine and blood vessels, and cardiac muscle. The A.N.S. is directly regulated
by the medulla and hypothalamus and indirectly by the limbic system. See pg 533.

Diagram of sympathetic and parasymapthetic nervous system - link to chapter on Autonomic nervous system

出處:www.gpc.edu/~jaliff/anathom.htm

autoregulation

Autocerebral mechanism for regulating blood flow to the brain.

定義:Returning to bioactive compounds and their receptors, we can expand Figure 7 by stating that while biochemical information emerges in the ligand-receptor complex, it needs higher levels of biological complexity to become macroscopically meaningful. These levels of higher complexity are the biological context, or better said a hierarchy of nested biological contexts (organelles, cells, tissues, organs, systems, organisms, ...). At each level, recognition and transactions must occur for the information to become a meaningful signal recognized by the next contextual level, and so on. The resulting spiral is depicted in Figure 9 and leads to the deduction that the autoregulation of organisms is based on a genuine bootstrapping of information and meaning.

出處:www.library.utoronto.ca/.../Testa.htm

autosomal

Related to chromosomes other than sex chromosomes.

[] 《形》 正染色體的.

http://dict.vghtpe.gov.tw/search.php?word=autosomal&Submit=+%ACd%B8%DF+&prefix=

定義:Progressive external ophthalmoplegia is a disorder of the mitochondria. It is characterized by multiple mitochondrial DNA deletions in skeletal muscle. The most common clinical features include adult onset of weakness of the external eye muscles (ophthalmoplegia) and exercise intolerance. Additional symptoms are variable, and may include cataracts, hearing loss, sensory axonal neuropathy, ataxia, depression, hypogonadism, and parkinsonism. Both autosomal dominant and autosomal recessive inheritance can occur; autosomal recessive inheritance is usually more severe.

Example of how progressive external ophthalmoplegia may be inherited in an autosomal recessive fashion.

出處:www.answers.com/topic/progressive-external-op...

autosomal dominance

Genetic expression mode in which a dysfunctional alleles possessed by one parent dominates the second allele from the other parent.Each offspring has a 50%probability of inheriting this dys functional gene and the disorder.

定義:Genes are the instructions found in each cell of the body that determine how the body is to develop and function. Genes are strung together, one after the other, and packaged into individual chromosomes, which are transmitted from parent to child in a very regular fashion. All chromosomes come in pairs; in humans, there are 23 pairs in all. One chromosome from each pair is inherited from the mother, and one from the father.

X-linked dominant gene diagram

出處:www.boystownhospital.org/.../xlink_dom.asp

axial muscles

Muscles associated with the central part of the body that regulate movements of the body or trunk.

定義:The other pathway followed by the corticospinal tract is called the ventromedial system. This system begins in the cortical motor neurons that control the body's axial muscles. This ventral corticospinal tract is composed 10 to 20% of cortical axons . Unlike the lateral system, the ventromedial system does not change sides when it enters the spinal cord, whence its other name, the direct pyramidal tract (as opposed to the crossed pyramidal tract). It descends fairly directly into the ventral and medial part of the spinal cord, where it connects to the motor neurons that innervate the axial muscles and the proximal segments of the arms and legs.

出處:thebrain.mcgill.ca/.../i_06_cl_mou.html

axon

Neuronal process capable of conducting neuronal impulses to other cell bodies.

定義The long, thread-like part of the nerve cell that extends from the cell body. The axon is covered by a sheath of myelin and is specialised for signal transduction; at the end of the axon, the nerve impulses are transmitted to other neurons or to effector organs.

出處www.brainexplorer.org/glossary/axon.shtml

axon collaterals

Small subsidiary processes attached to the main body of the axon.

Chinese translation of this term?

http://faculty.etsu.edu/currie/images/neuro1.jpg

http://faculty.etsu.edu/currie/excitation.htm

http://www.nature.com/npp/journal/v31/n2/images/1300829f2.jpg

http://www.nature.com/npp/journal/v31/n2/fig_tab/1300829f2.html?url=/npp/journal/v31/n2/full/1300829a.html

定義: Afferent stimulation of the white matter evoked mono- and polysynaptic responses in identified PFC pyramidal neurons, with corresponding axon collaterals preserved in the brain slice under study (using whole-cell recording technique). Current-clamp recordings show constant latencies for early EPSP/spike (a), a monotonic increase in evoked EPSP amplitude with increasing stimulus strength (a1), and the ability to follow 20 Hz train stimulation (a2), consistent with a monosynaptic event, that is, Type I response pattern. Each arrow indicates the stimulus onset and artefact. Neurons exhibiting the Type I response pattern typically had little (eg restricted to basilar dendrites; a3) or moderate (eg up to middle layers; b2) preservation of their intracortical axon collaterals. On the other hand, variable onset latencies for late EPSP/spike (ie the second spikes in b1 and c1), the rapid recruitment of high-amplitude events with small increases in stimulus strength (c1), and the inability to follow high-frequency trains of impulses (see Figure 7 a2) are consistent with a polysynaptic process, that is, Type II response pattern. Neurons displaying this Type II response pattern in whole-cell recordings also exhibited extensively ramifying axon collaterals ascending from somatodendritic field to middle layers, in contrast to the superficial layer ramification pattern that is more frequently observed in the Type II neurons recovered during sharp-electrode intracellular recordings (see Figure 1 c1). This may be due to the fact that visualized whole-cell recordings tend to record from neurons located closer to the surface of slices than sharp-electrode intracellular recordings. (a1, a2, a3) show the corresponding electrophysiological and morphological characteristics typical of the Type I response neurons in whole-cell recordings (ie with limited preservation of axon collaterals). (b1, b2) show the corresponding electrophysiological and morphological characteristics typical of the Type I/II borderline neurons (ie with numerous axon collaterals confined to the somatodendritic field). (c1, c2) show the corresponding electrophysiological and morphological characteristics typical of the Type II response neurons that have axon collaterals that extend beyond middle layers. Open arrows mark axon collaterals. (a1) A Type I neuron displayed a 21 mV-sized EPSP (at 1.1 mA), and a 9 ms latency spike at –46 mV spike threshold (at 1.3 mA). (b1) A mixed Type I/II neuron displayed an all- or none response, with no response at 0.1 mA, whereas spike discharge at 0.2–0.5 mA. The first spike latency was shortened from 10 to 7 ms as increasing stimulus strength from 0.2 mA to 0.3, 0.4, and 0.5 mA, without altering the spike threshold (-48 mV). The second spike of two spikes evoked at 0.4 and 0.5 mA occurred at slightly longer latency (13.1 ms) and higher threshold (-41 mV) than the first spike. (c1) A Type II neuron displayed a 4 mV IPSP (at 0.3 mA), 10 mV-EPSP (at 0.4 mA), and one spike (at 0.5 mA) or two spikes (at 0.6 mA). The second spike of the two spikes evoked at 0.6 mA occurred at significantly longer latency (42.4 ms) and higher spike threshold (-47 mV), compared to the first spike (7 ms latency; -65 mV spike threshold). (a3, c2) DMSO-mounted horizontal slices. (b2) A protex-mounted coronal slice. Scale bars: a3, b2, and c2=40 mum.

Figure 2 - Unfortunately we are unable to provide accessible alternative text for this. If you require assistance to access this image, please contact help@nature.com or the author

出處www.nature.com/.../v31/n2/full/1300829a.html

axonal hillock

Site where the axon joins the cell.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axon_hillock

定義Structure of typical mammalian neurons. Arrows indicate the direction of conduction of action potentials in axons (red). (a) Multipolar interneurons. Each has profusely branched dendrites, which receive signals at synapses with several hundred other neurons, and a single long axon that branches laterally and at its terminus. (b) A motor neuron that innervates a muscle cell. Typically, motor neurons have a single long axon extending from the cell body to the effector cell. In mammalian motor neurons an insulating sheath of myelin usually covers all parts of the axon except at the nodes of Ranvier and the axon terminals. (c) A sensory neuron in which the axon branches just after it leaves the cell body. The peripheral branch carries the nerve impulse from the receptor cell to the cell body, which is located in the dorsal root ganglion near the spinal cord; the central branch carries the impulse from the cell body to the spinal cord or brain. Both branches are structurally and functionally axons, except at their terminal portions, even though the peripheral branch conducts impulses toward, rather than away from, the cell body

出處tainano.com/chin/Molecular%20Biology%20Glossa...

axonal reaction

Retrograde chromatolytic changes in the soma marked by disintegration of the granules of the nissl bodies after damage to an axon.

定義Axonal reaction is also known as central chromatolysis. If an axon is severed or otherwise injured, the perikaryon (neuronal cell body) swells, rounds up and becomes pale-staining. The Nissl substance disappears except just below the cell membrane, and the nucleus moves to the edge of the cell.

* "Peripheral chromatolysis": The neuron is recovering!

* Healthy Clarke's column and some other neuron groups can show central chromatolysis for some reason.)

出處: www.pathguy.com/lectures/cns-all.htm