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LBT304-307智源
內文：
IV. FURTHER ELUCIDATION OF LANGUAGE ACQUISITION THROUGH THE STUDY OF DEFECTIVE CHILDREN
透過有缺陷孩童的研究，更深入語言機制的教育
Quick definitions (elucidation)
noun: an act of explaining that serves to clear up and cast light on
noun: an interpretation that removes obstacles to understanding
http://www.onelook.com/?w=ELUCIDATION&ls=a
The study of the biological basis of behavior in man is severely handicapped by the impossibility of doing crucial experiments that systematically interfere with physiology, Growth of structure, and development. We must, therefore, take resource to pathological deviations。 these，of course，are never controlled situations and therefore introduce inaccuracies, but since we have nothing more exact to study ins/in its place, the experimental shortcomings must be taken into account and accepted as inevitable. Simply to ignore or overlook these phenomena is inexcusable as it may result in theories that are flatly contradicted by pertinent facts in pathology.
關於人體生理根本行為研究幾乎受到阻礙，不太可能做有系統性的實驗，由於它干擾到人體的生理。隨著結構的成長以及發展，。我們必須求助於病理的方面。當然，它是不能被控制狀況還有引進錯誤，因為我們對精確的研究它的地方毫無所知We have nothing more exact to replace it，此外，實驗性的缺點必須被算入，並無可避免的接受。簡化地忽略這些現象是不可避免的，雖然它會造成和病理學相關的理論事實有所牴觸、矛盾。
It is often said that it is difficult enough to understand the development of behavior in the healthy individual and that we should, therefore, not complicate our task by trying to understand at the same time behavioral development in the presence of disease. Such a statement is based on the false assumption that disease result in more complicated behavior. however, we may consider it axiomatic that disease processes do not usually add to the complexity of structure of behavior. Disease may distort or modify some aspects of behavior；or it may block inhibitions or eliminate balancing components of the behavioral structure, throwing development or performance into disequilibrium, such that one component becomes much more prominent than another；or it may eliminate certain superstructures, thus bringing more primitive layers of behavioral into prominence. But disease will not ordinarily produce behavior that goes beyond the level of complexity which is norm. It might often be dangerous to study merely one disease process and then make generalizations based on this one type of pathology. However，if we view a given behavior pattern in the light of a whole spectrum of pathological modifications, we may be able to attain some insight into aspects of that behavior not ordinarily seen.
通常要了解個體健康行為的發展是一件很困難的事情，所以我們不應該藉著嘗試了解行為的發展，同時有個體有疾病的存在來使我們的實驗複雜化。疾病造成複雜行為是一句依據錯誤假設的言論。我們應該明白疾病並不是通常造成行為結構的複雜性。疾病或許會扭曲、修改行為的角度；甚至於阻礙抑制或者消除平衡行為結構的元素，使得行為的發展發現變的不安定的，像是原本其中一個元素比其他的元素還要更加明顯，或者消除了上層的結構，讓原先的內部行為層變的更加突出。但是疾病並不會是產生行為，然後它超越正常結構的複雜性階段。假使只是研究疾病的階段然後就下定結論它是病理學其中的一種型態，這們做是很危險的。假使我們以觀看一個特定的行為範本，然後以看光譜層的方式，來看病理症狀改變，我們將會得到一些原本沒有發現的行為一些見識。
(1)Language Lacquisition in the Absence Speech Production
Most psychological theories on language acquisition assume that the conditio sine quo non for this development is presence of an appropriate response system(most recently emphasized by Premack and Schwartz,1966)namely random babbling, that，may be shaped into words，phrases and complete and mature utterances。It is a fundamental assumption here that responding is prior，in a sense，to understanding。however，there is a type of childhood abnormality that contradicts this assumption。These are children with an inborn disability to coordinate their muscles of the vocal tract sufficiently to produce intelligible speech。The disturbance is seen in varying degree ranging from mild impediment to congenital anarthria.
多數關於語言機制的理論為假設在一個必然的情況中，對於反應系統的存在是適當性的。如毫無頭緒嬰兒的呀啞語，單字、句子等，然後將會轉變成成熟的言語。反應是較早出來的基本假設是可以被理解的。然而，另外有一種孩童不正常幼年時期的型態與先前的理論牴觸。這些小朋友不太能去協調他們聲帶的肌肉，然後去產生可理解的言語。這種憂慮可從輕度的口吃到先天性的言語呐疾被看出來。
I have had an opportunity to study one such case in great detail over a five-year period。This was a child who was nine years old when seen last。He has never been able to babble or，with advancing age，to say anything at all，but there can be no question that he has complete understanding of English。Over the years much material was collected about this case including detailed medical prenatal and postnatal histories，neurological examinations，family and social histories，laboratory and psychological test results(repeated at various intervals),X-rays and electroencephalography，observations during free play in the child’s home and in my office；records were kept during attempts to train him in speech(unsuccessfully),and a report is available on daily private tutoring throughout one summer。This was conducted as a demonstration project to teach this totally inarticulate child the elements of reading。The latter was relatively successful.*The technique used is of considerable interest；the child demonstrated his ability to read by learning to match pictures to words and simple sentences。Absence of articulation should not be automatically regarded as a hindrance to instructing inarticulate children in the three R’s.
我以前曾經有研究一名類似上述的例子的患者長達五年的時間。這名患者我最後一次看到他的時候，已經九歲了。他從來沒有呀呀語過，而隨著年紀的增長，也不會說任何話語，但是令人驚奇的事，他完全理解英文。經過多年，許多與患者相關的資料被收集，包含詳細出生前與出生後醫療紀錄、神經科學的檢查、家族和社會病史以及研究室和心理學的測試結果(經過不同時段的重複測試)、X光、腦電圖學以及觀察患者在獨自在家和我辦公室玩耍的情況，紀錄持續的嘗試訓練他的言語，但是並不成功，而一個報告指出，每日私人的家教在一整個夏天這個方法是可允許的。於是我們便執行了這項計畫，教導製明口齒不清的孩子閱讀的方法，而結果相當的成功。這項方法的運用被視為是有趣的，患者展示他閱讀的能力藉由學習用圖片對比到單字以及簡單的句子上，而缺乏正確的發音孩童並不能自動地視為一種教導他們發音的阻礙。
The technical details and background for this case are reported in Lenneberg(1962) and a discussion of the etiology of this condition may be found in Lenneberg(1964).
關於這名病患技術性的細節以及背景可以在Lenneberg(1962)找到，而這種疾病的病源學的討論可以在Lenneberg(1964)發現。
Some details of the patients communication behavior may be worth reporting here.
這名病患某些的溝通行為更直得在此探討。
His crying and laughter had sounded normal since birth。He was able to make other noises，for instance，short，cough-like grunts，accompanying his pantomimed communications。While playing alone，he would readily make noises that sounded somewhat like Swiss yodeling(though he had never had any experience with these sounds) and which do not resemble any kind of vocalization heard among normal American children。When I first saw him，he appeared to have some difficulty in bringing his voicing mechanism under voluntary control。For instance，he was unable to make the pointer of the VU meter in an Ampex tape recorder jump by emitting grunts into a microphone even though he was fully aware of the logical connection between sound and deflection of the pointer and was fascinated by it。he would hold on to microphone and move his head and lips toward it as if to prompt himself for the action；after a few futile attempts and with signs of rising frustration，he would，in desperation，gesture to the examiners mouth，inviting him to make the needle jump, or else simply resort to clapping his hands and accomplish his end this way。With advancing age he learned to control his vocal apparatus to a greater extent。At the time he was last seen he would repeat-with a considerable show of strain-a few words，but the words were barely intelligible and were never produced without support from the speech correctionist or the mother。They had to say the words simultaneously with him.
在患者剛出生的時候，他的哭聲與笑聲聽起來與和正常人無異。他可以發出噪音，例如短暫、像是咳嗽呼嚕聲並且伴隨著手勢上的溝通。當他獨自玩耍的時候，會發出會發出一種噪音，如瑞士人的聲音，而這種發音方式並不像是屬於從一群美國孩童發出來的語音。當我第一次見到他的時候，他似乎有發音機制困難的問題。舉例而言，他無法指出安派克斯錄像機紀錄表中音量單位表的指示物，藉著向麥克風發出呼嚕的聲音，雖然他完全的知道聲音和指示物偏向兩者之間的關係且深深的為他著迷。他會握住麥克風，移動他的頭與嘴唇朝向麥克風，好像題是自己做那個動作；經過幾次挫折的嘗試，他會感到失望的，向檢驗者的嘴巴比手勢，邀請他們做刺激的跳躍，又或者一些比較簡單的方式，如拍著他的手掌伴隨著結束這個方式。但隨著他年紀成長，逐漸可以控制聲音的機制。有時，他可以重複一些簡單的字，然而這些字並不清楚，若無專家或者母親的提示，他幾乎很少發出來。他們必須和他同時說出那個字詞。
Some of the spontaneous sounds emitted by the patient at four years were analyzed spectrographically。The spectrograms are grossly abnormal for a child of this age and resemble those of a neonate in a number of respects，such as the unsteadiness in the formant pattern，the intermittent bursts of nonharmonic overtones，and the almost random change in resonance distribution over the spectrum(Lenneberg,1962).The spectrograms may be interpreted either as grossly immature or as evidence of a fixed central nervous system abnormality implicating the basic mechanisms for speech synergism.
患者在四歲時，發出的一些自發性聲音被聲譜儀分析著。光譜圖結果對於像樣年紀的孩子是很不正常的，相似那些特定少數的嬰兒，如共振峰圖形不穩定、非協波非間斷性的爆破以及頻譜圖上共振隨機的改變。頻譜圖會受不成熟或者中樞神經系統不正常的影響所干擾，引響所包含的語言配合作用。
From the patients first visit to the clinic it had been obvious that he had a normal and adequate understanding of spoken language。He has been more than twenty times since then，and full comprehension has been confirmed by neurologists，psychologists，speech therapists，medical residents，and teachers。A number of tape recordings have been made of interviews，including a visit to the patients home。Most of the examinations were done without the presence of his mother。At one time，a short series of instructions were tape recorded and transmitted to the patient through earphones。He followed the instructions without being able to see the examiner.
從病人第一次進入診所，我明顯的知道他對所講的母語有適當的了解。經過二十多次的診療實驗，他對語言全然的理解，而這經過神經學家、心理學家、語言治療師、醫
At the age of eight his capacity to comprehend was fully documented in a 16-millimeter sound film which is publicly available.*The film was not rehearsed and the interviewer had been known to patient by sight only。The demonstration includes the following items：ability to chew，swallow，and suck；sounds emitted while playing at age four；tape recordings of mothers-”conversation”-with subject，recorded during a home visit；following commands and answering questions by nodding；a short story is told followed by questions on it which are couched in complex grammatical constructions.
當他八歲時，他有能力可以完全理解。影片並非是預演的，而面談者僅看過患者一眼。展示包含了以下的事物：有能力去咀嚼、吞嚥以及吸吮；四歲獨自玩時會發生聲音，從辦訪開始，錄音帶記錄著媽媽關於主題的對話；以下的要求以及回答問題是藉由點頭來表達；藉由此來表達簡短的故事，而這個故事要有複雜文法結構等。
*1：Carried out in cooperation with the Harvard School of Education；special thanks are to Dr.Helen Popp and Dr.Joel Weinberg.
*2：The Acquisition of Language in a Speechless Child。16-millimeter sound film。Running time is 18 minutes，distributed by cinema register，Pennsylvania State University.
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