LBT307-311珮馨

語聽二 9580018 王珮馨 負責頁數: p307第四段~p311第一段

It is tempting to explain the patient’s responses to verbal instructions by extralinguistic means. Perhaps he is merely responding to visual cues given by the examiner and has, in fact, not learned to understand English! Could children with his type of abnormality develop perceptual skills such as were observed in von Osten’s famous horse, der kluge Hans, who supposedly could stamp his hoof in response to questions posed to him in German, but who, upon close examination by the psychologist Pfungst, had merely learned to observe the questioner, picking up minute motor cues related to posture and respiratory patterns which signals to him whether to stop or to continue to stamp his hoof? There is direct evidence against this hypothesis. The child described can react to tape-record instructions in the absence of any observer. Further, his response do not consist merely of nodding but also of doing things which could not easily be conveyed by inadvertent motor cues. In the film which documents the case, it is clear that the child frequently follows commands without looking at the examiner. Only three time (out of 45 responses) was there vacillation between correct and incorrect answers, and the last answer in each case is correct. On the other hand, there was no hesitation in the three instances when incorrect answers were given. There is no reason to assume that this child has a horse’s ability to respond to visual cues instead of assuming that he has he has learned what every other child of his age has learned-to understand English. Table 7.3 summarizes the child’s performance. It is the result of a panel of three judges who scrutinized the film, viewing each command and its execution individually with as many repetitions as were necessary in order to determine, by unanimous agreement, whether there was any likelihood of extralinguistic cuing.

這是要嘗試解釋病人藉由非語言方法對於言辭指令的回應。或許他幾乎是靠著檢查者給的眼神線索來回答，事實上，並非是經過學習去了解英文！是否小孩有不正常發展知覺技巧的形式可以像von Osten有名的馬der kluge Hans一樣可以被觀察，這隻馬被推測可以回答德文問題當他有跺他的蹄這個姿勢，但是心理學家Pfungst有更警慎的實驗，他僅僅學習去觀察提問者，整理出和微小的姿勢、呼吸方式有關的動作線索，這個訊號對於這隻馬是讓它停止或持續跺他的蹄？這裡有直接證據反對這個假說。在任何的觀察者無相反證據下小孩被描述可以對於卡帶錄音的指令可以做出反應。進一步，他的反應不只包括微小的點頭也包括做一件不容易被不注意的動作線索所傳達的事。這個影片為這個實例做證據，很明顯的小孩通常遵循指令時沒有看實驗者。在45個答覆當中只有三次是猶豫於正確和不正確的答案之間，而在每個個案最後的答案是正確的。相反地，在這三個例子中當回答是錯誤的答案時並沒有猶豫。沒有一個理由假定小孩有馬的能力去對於視覺線索作反應取而代之假定小孩學習其他每個小孩在什麼歲數時需要了解英文。表7.3總括小孩的表現。將這個在影片被細看的一組調查對象的結果以三個標準分為三組，檢視每個命令和個別的執行與許多重複和必要為了由一致同意的協議確定，是否有任何可能非語言的暗示。

(TABLE 7.3)

表7.3　實驗對象的正確、猶豫不決和錯誤回答的數量　

實驗對象回答的分類
反應必須的類型	正確		猶豫不決		錯誤		總數
	沒有暗示的可能	無遺或可能的暗示	沒有暗示的可能	無遺或可能的暗示	沒有暗示的可能	無遺或可能的暗示
是否的行為	19	5	0	0	2	2	28
點頭	2	11	0	3	0	1	17
總數	21	16	0	3	2	3	45

Might it not be possible that this patient had nosy understanding of syntactic connections but merely responded to key words in the commands and questions? This possibility is extremely unlikely in the face of his understanding of such sentences as “Take the block and put it on the bottle.” “Is it time to eat breakfast now?” “Was the black cat fed by the nice lady?”

　病人愛追問的了解語法連結可能是不可能的嗎，或是僅僅回答在命令或問句中

的關鍵字？這個可能性非常的不太可能當他的理解面對像＂拿起磚塊而後放在瓶上＂、＂是這個時間吃早餐嗎？＂、＂黑貓是由好的女士餵養嗎？＂這樣的句子。

Congenital anarthria, as reported here, is a rare condition, but the case is by no mean unique, and the discrepancy between speech skills and the capacity for understanding may, indeed, be observed in every child. The theoretical importance of the extreme dissociation between perceptive and productive ability lies in the demonstration that the particular ability which we may properly call “having knowledge of a language” is no identical with speaking. Since knowledge of a language may be established in the absence of speaking skills, the former must be prior, and in a sense, simper than the latter. Speaking appears to require additional capacities, but these are accessory rather than criterial for language development.

就如在此報導，先天性的發音不能是一個很罕見的狀況，但是這個個案決不

特別，言語技巧和理解能力之間的差異甚至也可以從每個小朋友上觀察到。這個重要的理論是知覺能力和產製能力是極度的分離，所呈現的論證是這個特定的能力我們或許會理所當然稱他為＂有語言的知識＂是和言語沒有差別的。既然語言的知識可能建立在缺少言語技巧，前者必當更重要的，就某種意義而言簡單於後者。言語出現在需要附加的能力，但是這比語言發展準測性是非主要的。

(＊The Acquisition of Language in a Speechless Child .16-millimeter sound film. Running time is 18 minutes, distributed by Psychological Cinema Register. Pennsylvania State University.)

在言語缺乏的小孩其語言習得，16毫米的有聲影集，時間約18分，提供於賓夕

法尼亞州立大學心理學的紀錄電影

(2) Language Development in Mongoloid Children

There are several different causes for mental retardation, and each disease has its typical manifestations. Nevertheless, the development bf language, insofar as it occurs at all in these patients, follows some general laws of evolvement which may be traced among all of these conditions and which, indeed, are not different in nature from the unfolding if language in healthy children. Among the retarded the entire developmental process is merely slowed down or stretched out during childhood and is regularly arrested during the early teens. This affords the opportunity to study language development in slow motion, and the developmental arrest at puberty produces “frozen” primitive stages which are inalterable at that age by further training.

(2)唐氏症小孩的語言發展

這裡有許多不同的原因造成心智遲緩，而每個疾病也有他的典型表現方式。儘管如此語言的發展在所有的病人會出現於一定的程度，依照一些普遍的發育規則，這個規則可被追朔於所有的狀況，甚至是健康的小孩其語言有所不相同的表現本質。在所有發展遲緩過程之間在童年只不過是發展慢一點或延長通常會滯留當在少年早期。提供機會去習得在發展較慢的語言發展，而阻止了在青春期的發展，產生所謂＂凍結＂主要的階段，這個階段年齡是不能藉由更深的訓練而更改的。

The study of children with mongolism offers certain advantages for research. The condition may be spotted at birth. Victims have a relatively good chance for reaching middle age. The condition is common. The patient population is relatively homogeneous, and a large number of patients are taken care of at home, and grow up in a normal social environment.

對於唐氏症孩童的調查提供特定的優點給研究。他的狀況可能是在家族上有斑點。其患者通常相對地有好的機會達到中年階段。病人的人口數比較而言是均勻的，大多數的病人被照顧在家，成長於一個正常的社會環境。

It is thought that mongoloid stigmata are manifestations of slowed or incomplete embryological development, apparently due to a chromosomal, intracellular disorder. In the process of postnatal maturation some but not all of the signs of immaturity disappear. With increasing age, structure, physiology, and behavior tend toward the norm, but all developmental facets progress at markedly slowed rates. In some areas, development is arrested at a level corresponding to three or four-year-old children in the normal population, whereas in other areas development continues to stages comparable to adolescence.

唐氏症的特徵是呈現較慢或不完全的胚胎發展，顯然是因為染色體細胞內的失序。在出生後成熟的過程一些但並不是全部的非成熟的標誌消失。隨著年齡的增加，架構、生理和行為嘗試朝向基準，但所有的發展層面進行速率明顯的緩慢。

在一些地區，發展年齡是被停留於相對於正常人口其三或四歲的小孩，像一些其他的地區，發展會持續到相較於青少年階段。

A large proportion of mongoloids pass their motor milestones with only mild delay, and menarche and secondary sexual characteristics appear in the midteens. Yet these individuals may never learn to make any social discriminations, write more than a few words, or to change money. The order in which developmental tasks are mastered is disarranged by differential slowing; those tasks which depend on common sense seem to suffer most.

有很大比率的唐氏症歷經他們的動作里程碑時只有輕微的遲緩，而月經合第二性徵出現在青少年中期。然而這些個案可能不曾學習去產生任何的社會歧視、寫一些字、或是兌換錢。這個主要發展任務的順序被特定的遲緩所混亂，這些任務仰賴普通的知覺而這似乎是遭受最深的部份。

Lenneberg, Nichols, and Rosenberger(1964)studied, over a three-year period, sixty-one mongoloid children who were all raised by their own parents and were living at home. The children were examined periodically, the frequency of the visits differing in accordance with the patient’s stage of development. Data consisted of medical history, neurological examination, psychological testing, tape recording of spontaneous utterances made while playing performance on an articulation test and a sentence-repetition test; and assessments of vocabulary, understanding of commands, and nature of vocalization.

Lenneberg，Nichols和Rosenberger在1964年的研究，在3年的期間觀察61位唐氏症兒童，這些唐氏症兒童都是由自己的父母培養且都住在家中。這些唐氏症兒童被週期性的檢查，造訪者檢查的頻率差異符合父母的發展階段。資料包含了醫學歷史、神經學上的檢查、心理測試、錄音帶紀錄於自發性發音在遊戲表現時的構音測試、句子重複的測驗、語彙評估、命令的了解和自然的發音。

(FIG 7.10)

圖7-10是藉由年齡時間前後順序的和智力在45的唐氏症小孩的關係

An interesting question concerns the role of intelligence in the acquisition of language. Is mastery of this, in a sense, highly abstract behavior dependent upon measurable intelligence? The problem is complicated(1) by the definition of intelligence and (2) by the changing intelligence quotients with chronological age among the feeble-minded. An individual whose cognitive status remains constant on a level comparable to that of the normal three-year-old appears to have a steadily falling IQ throughout childhood due to the peculiar way in which this figure is computed. The situation is well-illustrated in the scattergram of Fig7-10.(Compare also Zeaman and house,1962.)The study of the mongoloid population, as well as that of additional case of mental retarda- tion ,indicates that there is a certain “IQ threshold value “that varies with age and that must be attained for language to be acquired. Individual below this threshold have varying degrees of language primitivity, as illustrated in Fig. 4.3(Chapter Four). It is noteworthy that this threshold relatively low. If we take a population whose IQ is at or just above threshold, which is the case of mongoloids, intelligence figures correlate quite poorly with language development. Only if we confine our observations to the low grades of feeblemindedness can a relationship between intelligence and language learning be established.

一個有趣的問題就是智力在語言習得上扮演著重要的角色。是否智力就支配著語言，就在某些意義而言，是否高度地抽象性行為仰賴著智力？這個問題是相當複雜於(1)智力的定義和(2)在隨著唐氏症年齡與低能兩者之中改變的智力商。由於特殊方式這個圖被計算的個體，一個個體的認知狀態依然的恆定在水平上可比較與在童年中那正常三年看上去有平穩下落的智商。這個情況在7-10的點圖中是很好說明(也比較於1962年Zeaman和House)。唐氏症人口的研究也和另外的心智遲緩的案例一樣，指出＂智力閾值的重要性＂是特定的，隨著年齡的變動，智力的獲得對於語言是需要的。個人在智力閾值方面低下有不同程度的語言性，如同圖4-3解釋(在第四章)。他顯著的低於閾值。

如果我們在唐氏症的案例中抽樣，他的智力如果在閾值或剛好在閾值之上，智力型態和語言發展的關係相當的薄弱地。除非我們限定我們觀察對於低層度的低能兒，智力與語言發展的關係是可以被建立的。