Resources for Communication Problems

Wednesday, January 23, 2008

NC463G凡鈞

NC463G凡鈞 +459G

How come you are doing P.459 & P. 463? Doing 459 by mistake? NC459G琦喻 Why didn’t you explain this to me in your e-mail or assignment?

名詞解釋

NC463G凡鈞

p.463

Homologous chromosomes同源染色體

Homologous :1660, from Gk. homologos "agreeing, of one mind," from homos "same" (see same) + logos "relation, reasoning, computation," related to legein "reckon, select, speak" (see lecture).

二倍體細胞中的同源染色體對是一對匹配的染色體。它們分別來源於生物體的雙親。除開性染色體,同源染色體對中的兩條染色體有相當長的部分相似,通常也具有相同的基因序列。兩條性染色體的相似部分較其他染色體少。我們推測染色體是旁系同源體。

Homonymous hemianopia同側偏盲

Homonymous :1621 (implied in homonymous), from L. homonymum (Quintilian), from Gk. homonymos, from homos "same" (see same) + onyma, dial. form of onoma "name" (see name).

多為視交叉以後的病變所致。有部分性、完全性和象限性同側偏盲。部分性同側偏盲最多見,缺損邊緣呈傾斜性,雙眼可對稱也可不對稱。上象限性同側偏盲,見於顳葉或距狀裂下唇的病變;下象限性同側偏盲,則為視放線上方纖維束或距狀裂上唇病變所引起。同側偏盲的中心注視點完全二等分者,稱為黃斑分裂,見於視交叉後視束的病變。偏盲時注視點不受影響者稱為黃斑回避,見於腦皮質疾患。

Homonymous left inferior quadrantanopsia

兩眼球視野同側(分上下左右之分區的)左下方的四分之一視野盲

Homonymous left superior quadrantanopsia

同側左上象限看不見

Homozygous同型基因接合子的

An organism is referred to as being homozygous (Basically meaning of the same alleles) at a specific locus when it carries two identical copies of the gene affecting a given trait on the two corresponding homologous chromosomes (e.g., the genotype is PP or pp when P and p refer to different possible alleles of the same gene). Such a cell or such an organism is called a homozygote. A homozygous dominant genotype occurs when a particular locus has two copies of the dominant allele (e.g. PP). A homozygous recessive genotype occurs when a particular locus has two copies of the recessive allele (e.g. pp).

Pure-bred or true breeding organisms are homozygous. For example a homozygous individual could have the allele combinations PP or pp. All homozygous alleles are either allozygous or autozygous.

例如:基因為種子形狀在豌豆植物中存在在二形式、一個形式或等位基因為圓的種子形狀(r) 和其他為起皺紋的種子形狀(r) 。一棵homozygous 植物會包含以下等位基因為種子形狀: (RR) (rr) 。而Rr則為異型合子。

Homunculus

1656, from L., lit. "little person," from homo(gen. hominis) "man, human being" + -culus, dim. suffix, source of Eng. -cle.

A figurative representation of the body map encoded in primary motor cortex. Body parts with complex repertories of fine movement, like the hand, require more cortical space in M1, while body parts with relatively simpler movements, like the hip, require less cortical space.

身體各部感覺動作在腦部皮質相對的位置

[Motor and Somatosensory Homunculus]

Motor homunculus

Hormones激素;內泌素;賀爾蒙.

在希臘文原意為「奮起活動」。是由內分泌腺產生的化學物質,隨著血液輸送到全身,控制身體的生長、新陳代謝、神經傳導等,荷爾蒙在人體內的量雖然不多,但是對健康卻有很大的影響,缺乏或是過多引發各種疾病,例如:生長激素分泌過多就會引起巨人症;分泌過少就會造成侏儒

hormones.jpg

Horner syndrome霍納氏症候群

Horner :O.E. hyrnetu, hurnitu "large wasp, beetle," probably from P.Gmc. base *khurz-nut- (cf. Du. horzel "hornet"), from PIE imitative (buzzing) root *krs-, as preserved in O.C.S. srusa, Lith. szirszu "wasp." On this theory, the Eng. word (as well as Ger. Hornisse) was altered by influence of horn, to suggest either "horner" (from the sting) or "horn-blower" (from the buzz). Cf. also O.S. hornobero "hornet," lit. "trumpeter."

syndrome :"a number of symptoms occurring together," 1541, from Mod.L., from Gk. syndrome "concurrence of symptoms, concourse," from syndromos, lit. "running together," from syn- "with" + dromos "running, course." Psychological sense is from 1955.

因為支配眼睛的交感神經受到阻斷所產生的症狀,包括瞳孔縮小,眼瞼下垂,半邊顏面無汗。交感神經纖維是由下視丘發出-->中腦、橋腦-->脊柱-->交感神經鍊-->頸神經節--->所支配的肌肉、血管、汗腺。
在上述路徑中任何部位發生問題造成神經受阻都有可能產生Horner's syndrome.
病因大致上可分為:
1.
中樞:腦血管變異,腦膜炎,腦部腫瘤,出血,去髓鞘化疾病,頸部外傷...
2.
周邊:肺部腫瘤,臂神經叢受傷,胸部外傷,動脈瘤,淋巴腺瘤,神經母細胞瘤.....
3.
感染:帶狀泡疹,梅毒...
4.
藥物

右眼為Horner's syndrome

Clues to the cause of the Horner's syndrome are based on the location of the lesion

有詳細的介紹www.jeffmann.net/NeuroGuidemaps/anisocoria.htm

Human growth hormone(hGH)生長激素

人類生長激素(HGH)是一種由腦下垂體分泌的、在兒童期和青春期促進生長的物質。生長激素作用於肝臟和其他組織,刺激它們產生胰島素樣生長因數IIGF-I),後者能夠促進生長。HGH是一種蛋白質,由人腦垂體前葉分泌,目前這種透過基因工程,重組196種氨基酸的活性多肽,卻不必直接從生物體中提煉,這與從前要從非洲行割禮後所取的包皮中提煉出的HGH是同一類物質,與人體自體分泌的HGH相吻合,在身體狀況需要的情況下,補充的是人體因年齡增長的自體物質,是現代醫學的一種手段。

Huntington chorea亨汀頓氏舞蹈症(Huntington disease)

1889, named for U.S. neurologist George Huntington (1851-1916), who described it in 1872

George Huntington1872年發現,此一病症是一種罕見、漸行性、致命性疾病,盛行率在西歐為每十萬人有三至七人,在亞洲人和非洲人咸信較低,約每十萬人有0.10.38人。由於腦中特別區域之神經細胞逐漸退化,引起肢體(包括臉部、頸部、軀幹及四肢)肌肉產生不自主運動,以及智力逐漸喪失。通常發病年齡為35-44歲之間(但10%的人在二十歲以前,25%的人可能在五十歲以後),發病後平均存活壽命為15-18年,一般過世的年齡為54-55歲左右。

遺傳模式:
該疾病是以自體顯性方式遺傳,顯少是新的基因突變,有變異的基因叫IT15,位在第四條染色體的短臂(4p16),由二十萬個鹼基所組成,共有67個外子,所製造的蛋白叫做huntingtin,由3,144個氨基酸組成,功能目前不清楚;IT15基因中有一段由胞嘧啶(cytosine)、腺嘌呤(adenine)及胱嘌呤(guanine)組成的三核?酸重複序列,正常的三核?酸重複序列數目為1026次,當這三核?酸重複的數目變得異常地多時(36-121),該基因的功能便出現異常;這時,即使另一個IT15基因是正常的(每一個人每個體細胞都有兩個IT15基因),特定神經細胞的功能仍會受影響,患者因而逐漸產生症狀。父或母其中一人的IT15基因有變異,其子女每人都有百分之五十的機會罹病;患者通常在症狀出現或知道自己有可能罹病之前已生育子女,將有變異的基因遺傳給了下一代,因此,適時的遺傳諮詢,對尚無症狀的家屬是非常重要的。

臨床症狀:

在疾病發生初期,症狀常很難察覺。三分之二的患者初期以神經系統症狀表現,三分之一的患者初期以精神症狀表現:

() 與運動有關的症狀(自主及不自主運動都受影響)包括:

手、腳、軀幹有控制不住的動作(舞蹈症) 90%的患者有此症狀。

眉毛及前額有重複而不自主的動作

面部有奇怪的表情

說話節律不順

動作遲緩

肌肉僵硬

平衡失調

步屨不穩

() 與精神有關的症狀包括:

個性改變

情感型精神病(20-90%)

精神分裂(4-12%)

幻覺, 妄想、懷疑心重

不修邊幅、不重個人衛生、疏忽該盡的責任

憂鬱、情緒呆滯

酒精濫用、性功能障礙

衝動、任性、常無緣無故發脾氣、攻擊性強

自殺傾向(12%)

(三) 與智力有關的症狀包括:

記憶力、判斷力、注意力、反應速度、計畫工作的能力變差

對人事時地物之定向感退步
其他的症狀包括體重減輕,睡眠障礙,尿失禁等。以上這些症狀,沒有一個單獨的症狀是杭丁頓氏病的特徵,但若病人有不自主的運動障礙,加上漸進性智力喪失或精神異常,則應高度懷疑是否罹患了杭丁頓氏病。

www.davidson.edu/.../psy324/memajure/home.html有詳細介紹神經性的部份

NC459凡鈞 cf. NC459G琦喻

p.459

dorsal背側的;背的(toward the superior surface of the brain)

1541, from M.Fr. dorsal, from L.L. dorsalis, from L. dorsualis "of the back," from dorsum "back," of uncertain origin.

Dorsal view of the cerebral hemispheres showing the principal gyri and sulci. =>Dorsal View of the Brain

dorsal column 脊柱

column :c.1440, "vertical division of a page," from O.Fr. colombe, from L. columna "pillar," collateral form of columen "top, summit," from PIE base *kel- "to project" (see hill). Sense of "matter written for a newspaper" dates from 1785. Columnist dates from 1920. Literal, architectural sense is attested from 1481.

The posterior column-medial lemniscus pathway is the sensory pathway responsible for transmitting fine touch and conscious proprioceptive information from the body to the cerebral cortex

=> 請參考http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Spinal_nerve.svg

The name comes from the two structures that the sensation travels up: the posterior (or dorsal) columns of the spinal cord, and the medial lemniscus in the brainstem. Because the posterior columns are also called dorsal columns, the pathway is often called the dorsal column-medial lemniscus system, or DCML for short. (Also called posterior column-medial lemniscus or PCML pathway).

Originating in peripheral sensory receptors, the posterior column-medial lemniscus pathway transmits fine touch and conscious proprioceptive information to the brain

dorsal horn背角

one of the two roots of a spinal nerve that passes dorsally to the spinal cord and that consists of sensory fibers

dorsal spinocerebellar tract背脊小腦束(posterior spinocerebellar tract)

a compact bundle of heavily myelinated, thick fibers at the periphery of the dorsal half of the lateral funiculus of the spinal cord, originating in the ipsilateral thoracic nucleus (column of Clarke) and ascending by way of the inferior cerebellar peduncle. Terminals end as mossy fibers in the granular layer of the cortex of the cerebellar vermis and, via collaterals, in the cerebellar nuclei. The bundle conveys largely proprioceptive information originating from the annulospiral nerve endings surrounding muscle spindles and from Golgi tendon organs

down syndrome唐氏症

1961, from J.L.H. Down (1828-96), English physician; chosen as a less racist name for the condition than earlier mongolism

致病機轉:

正常之人細胞含有46 條染色體,每一條染色體是由許多基因排列而成,而這些基因決定了人們所有的遺傳特性。產生唐氏症的染色體變化有三種型式:三染色體症、轉位以及鑲嵌型。

1、三染色體症:約佔唐氏症患者之95%,且發生率與母親年齡增加有相關性。產生的原因是因為在精子或卵子形成時,第21 對染色體發生無分離現象,因此有些精子或卵子多帶了一個染色體,有些少帶了一個染色體。多帶了第21 號染色體的精子或卵子和正常卵子或精子結合後,就變成了三染色體的受精卵,而造成唐式症。大部份三染色體症的父母親均是染色體正常,只有極少數是由三染色體症的母親或鑲嵌型唐氏症的父親所生。

2、轉位型唐氏症:約佔唐氏症患者之4%,是由於第21 號染色體結構上發生缺陷斷裂而轉移黏到其他染色體上去。第21 號染色體由於短臂很小,可以和第131415 號染色體(D 群染色體)或第2122 號染色體(G 群染色體)發生長臂相黏的羅氏轉位,也可以和其他染色體發生交互性轉位,因此若小孩檢查屬於轉位型,則父母需要做染色體檢查。

3、鑲嵌型:約佔所有唐氏症的1%,此型患者體內同時存在混合著含有46個染色體或47 個染色體的細胞,產生的原因是因為受精卵在有絲分裂時產生無分離的情形,而產生兩個系列的細胞。鑲嵌型的唐氏症臨床症狀通常最輕,智商也常達60 以得到先天性心臟病的機會很少。

臨床症狀:

1、外觀特徵:唐氏症患者(特別是臉)的外表是,常常兩個眼睛向上、向外斜,上眥有贅皮的現象,多了皮膚蓋著內眼角,他們頭的背部比較扁平,鼻樑 比較塌陷、上額比較小,同時小顎也比較高,口腔也比較小。他的舌頭因口腔比較小,所以龜裂的舌頭常常會吐出來,並有臍部疝氣、睪丸下降的現象。一般來講,男的唐氏症病人並不具生育能力,女的唐氏症病人則有生小孩的記錄。理論上如果他們有生殖行為的話,有一半的小孩會再出現唐氏症。其他特徵,包括手比較短、比較厚,第五個指頭向內彎,中指發育比較差,還有他們的大腳趾跟二腳趾之間分得比較寬,腳底有一個明顯凹進去的部份。

2、智能不足:唐氏症者最主要的問題是智障。一般而言,唐氏症患者屬於中度智能不足,隨年齡成長因為唐氏症患者的智能發展較緩,智商有相對下降的趨勢。但是實際上小孩的心理、運動和社交還是在持續成長。這種成長要到10 歲以後才趨緩下來。有些唐氏症兒童在10 歲以後還有將近5 年期間的成長期,到15 歲以後才達高原期。15 歲以後的智力才比較穩定。

3、肌肉張力低:唐氏症的小孩出生時的肌肉張力較低,除此外看不出有神精學上的缺陷,但是隨著年齡的成長,可以發現在發育上明顯的逐漸落後於正常之小孩,圖2 顯示出唐氏症小孩在每一個生長指標上都逐漸多落後了將近二個月,到兩歲左右累積起來就落後了將近一兩年。出生時之低肌肉張力會影響到小孩的吸吮力,也會影響到母子的互動關係。有研究指出出生時的肌肉張力和唐氏症患者日後身心發育有關,開始肌肉張力越差的,日後智力和運動能力的發展也較差。

4、各種先天性畸形

Down Syndrome

dressing apraxia穿衣不能症

不能自己穿戴。和建設失能、單側忽視以及軀體認識障礙有關。分辨不清身體和袖子、衣角、領子之間的相對位置,每每將衣服翻來翻去,不知所措地搖搖頭,隨即卻又辯解這衣服已經很久沒穿了云云。在經過多次居家學習後,才漸漸可以獨立穿脫。治療:針對主要原因進行,加強實踐操作訓練。

duchenne muscular dystrophy杜馨氏肌肉萎縮症(pseudo-hypertrophic muscular d.)

dystrophy :"defective nutrition," from Mod.L. dystrophia, from Gk. dys- "hard, bad, ill" (see dys-) + trophe "nourishment."(Duchenne's musculardystrophy)(pseudo-hypertrophic muscular d.).疑似肥大肌肉

又稱杜顯氏肌肉萎縮症,是一種性聯隱性遺傳病,亦是兒童期最常見的肌肉萎縮症。由於肌肉細胞不能正常產生一種稱為Dystrophin蛋白質,會使鈣離子滲入細胞,引發瀑布反應,導致患者全身肌肉無力。因為是性聯隱性遺傳,故只有男性會有病徵,帶有一個不正常基因的女性通常不會有症狀,肌肉功能會稍有損壞,但會有50%的機會將有變異的基因傳給兒子。另一種病情較輕的肌肉營養不良症稱為碧加氏肌肉營養不良症(英文:Becker's Muscular Dystrophy, BMD)

身體上的症狀有:

不穩步伐 容易跌倒 不良於行 (跑步和跳) 愈來愈嚴重的行動困難 行路能力通常在12歲時消失 容易疲勞 輕度智能障礙 (大概30%的患者) 骨骼發育畸形 (有些個案為脊椎側彎) 肌肉發育畸形 小腿肌肉異常腫大(Pseudohypertrophy)(這些肌肉的正常組織被硬化組織所取代) 杜興氏肌肉營養不良症最終會影響到所有平滑肌,以及心臟和呼吸肌肉。

This is Duchenne muscular dystrophy. There is degeneration of muscle fibers along with some regeneration and scattered chronic inflammatory cells, fibrosis, and hypertrophy of remaining muscle fibers. Duchenne's is due to a defective gene on the X chromosome that leads to an inability to produce the membrane skeletal protein dystrophin. Thus, this is an X-linked recessive disorder. About 30% of cases represent new mutations.

Muscle weakness is caused by muscular dystrophy.Muscle weakness is caused by muscular dystrophy.Diagram showing X link inheritence © mdcDiagram showing X link inheritence © mdcDiagram showing X link inheritence © mdc

dura mater硬膜

腦及脊髓的表面有腦脊膜(meninges)包著。在腦部稱腦膜,在脊髓部位稱脊膜。共有三層,最外一層是硬膜(dura mater),中間是蜘蛛膜(arachnoid mater),最內一層為軟膜(pia mater);膜與膜間或膜與腦或脊髓之間都有腦脊液存在,藉以避免腦或脊髓與頭顱骨或脊椎骨相撞擊或受震盪。所謂腦膜炎或脊膜炎即此膜發炎之意。

Meninges of the brain

dural sinuses腦膜靜脈竇

硬腦膜在某些部位兩層分開,中間形成能讓血液流過的通道,稱為「硬腦膜竇」(dural sinuses),內面襯以內皮細胞,構成硬腦膜竇dural sinuses,內含靜脈血,使靜脈血由腦回流至頸部血管,竇壁無平滑肌,不能收縮,故損傷時出血難止,容易形成顱內血腫。

dynamic equilibrium動力平衡,(體內動力之平衡).

在運動時維持平衡的能力

dysarthria發音不良,發音困難,(由神經肌肉障礙所致).

A disorder of articulation. This can be due to either a defect in the organs of articulation (i.e., mouth, tongue, larynx, etc.) or, more commonly in aphasic patients, by impairment to the nerves supplying the organs of articulation. A number of different types of dysarthria are recognised, including spastisc dysarthria (characterised by raised tone in the muscles controlling articulation), flaccid dysarthria (in which there is reduced tone and weakness), dystonic dysarthria (where poorly-controlled writing movements may occur), and ataxic dysarthric (where there is poor coordination of muscle movements). There is no deficit of language. There is debate on whether articulatory apraxia should be described as a variety of dysarthria.

個人健康出了問題,聲音亦亮不起來,甚至因發音困難而引起擠壓喉嚨的情形,這樣子很容易導致呼吸系統和共鳴器官發生病變。

dysdiadochokinesia輪替運動錯亂

Dysdiadochokinesia is one symptom of a disease that is characterized by progressive cerebellar ataxia, including dysarthria and dysphagia, and cone-rod and retinal dystrophy with progressive central visual loss resulting in blindness in affected adults.. Dysdiadochokinesia is mentioned several times in an article that you can read by clicking on the link at the end of this paragraph. Although it is not an article on Dysdiadochokinesia it is a very important symptom of this disease, Spinocerebellar Ataxia Type 7 it is mentioned quite a few times, in my opinion a very interesting read all and all. Dysdiadochokinesia is also mentioned as a symptom of hyperammonemia.

因小腦的損傷,而造成無法轉換下個動作迅速的能力

dyskinesia運動困難,運動不良

無法進行自我意識的行動

dyslexia 1.識字不能.2.識字困難,(中樞神經疾患),

A disorder of reading. The traditional classification of disorders of reading, developed by Dejerine (1892), recognises three kinds of dyslexia, which are distinguished by their accompanying disorders. In dyslexia without dysgraphia (or pure dyslexia), writing is unaffected but reading is disturbed; in dyslexia with dysgraphia, both reading and writing are disturbed, but there is, by comparison, little or no aphasia.. In dysphasic dyslexia, reading, writing, and other langugae modalities are impaired. This classification schema is (broadly) accepted by the neo-classical school

失讀症這個名詞首度由德國Stuttgart Rudolf Berlin 1887年提出。他用這個詞來描述那些閱讀字母或單字有困難的學生。在美國的一本辭典-The American Heritage Dictionary中,dyslexia被定義為是「一種以不能閱讀為特徵的學習障礙」。最近dyslexia曾被定義為「無法學會處理書寫形式的語言,儘管這些人可能有相當好的智力,感官能力,甚至可能很有名」。 (Grubin 2002)

失讀症或誦讀障礙是一種疾病。有失讀症的人,智力同一般人並無差別,但閱讀能力和寫作能力卻與常人有較大差距。當一個人的閱讀困難無法通過智力缺陷、不當教育或視覺障礙等感知問題所解釋的時候,通常就會被診斷為失讀症。由於閱讀是一個非常複雜的思維過程,失讀症的形成有很多可能的原因。神經生理學的觀點認為,可以通過屍體解剖中的大腦形態學觀察判斷失讀症。失讀症通常與發音困難相關。這種閱讀困難可能有人是來自基因上先天的問題,也有人是來自後來環境的影響,普遍認為嚴重的失讀症通常可以找到基因上的根源。

相關影片: http://tw.youtube.com/watch?v=iRViWJqJfZM

dysmetria動幅障礙

因小腦損傷,而導致無法認定方向與距離近而限制行動

dysphagia吞嚥困難

因上消化道損害、機械 阻塞或支配吞咽的神經、肌肉功能紊亂所致的吞咽障礙。以食道阻塞最多見,常伴吞咽痛。意指因身體機能上及構造上,或心理的原因,造成進食時食物不易咀嚼、吞嚥或是容易哽咽。中風、頭部損傷、柏金遜症、肌肉萎縮、神經肌肉障礙、年齡老化等皆會導致不同型態的吞嚥困難。可分為運動性障礙及機械性障礙兩種。運動性吞嚥困難是指支配吞嚥步驟所涵蓋的肌肉或神經發生問題,使得吞嚥肌肉輸送或蠕動不全或神經之調配失調,這部份的病變是常見的是中風後吞嚥困難(故往往需借助鼻胃管進食),如巴金森病,瀰漫性食道痙攣(diffusedesophagospasm),食道失馳緩症(achalasia)食道硬化症(esophageal sclerosis)等。而機械性吞嚥困難則屬吞入的食物太大哽住食道(很少見)或食道腔狹小(較常見),其狹小的原因可因食道腫瘤(良性或惡性),食道炎潰瘍結痂而縮小食道的直徑。臨床上常見的有食道癌,長久之逆行性食道炎或潰瘍治療後之結痂性食道狹窄或誤食腐蝕性物質(如硫酸或鹽酸)經治療及長時間後纖維化之狹窄。

工具書:榮陽醫學辭典,one look,電子辭典…etc

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