LB 321-322 331 宜蒨

LB 321-322 331 宜蒨

9580025林宜蒨

Do you know who takes care of the paragraph before this?

You must learn to define long paragraph as content, not as outline, which you did throughout all your assignment.

P321~322上

Thus there can be no doubt that the deaf come in contact with language at an age when other children have fully mastered this skill and when, perhaps, the most important formative period for language establishment is already on the decline; furthermore, their contact with language samples, even at this late age, is dramatically reduced in amount in comparison with the amount of language to which a hearing child is exposed; and finally, these children have to process visually what other children receive aurally. The latter point is of no small consequence because there are indications that the eye is slower in its temporal integration than the ear, and, therefore, even if perfection could be attained in lip reading (the most proficient lip readers cannot identify more 40 to 50﹪ of articulated phonemes （Eggermont, 1964）, ordinary discourse would be so fast that only small parts could be followed adequately.

Language proficiency varies a great deal among pupils in the schools. This is primarily due to such factors as the profoundness of the handicap, its cause, the age at which hearing was lost, and the adaptability of the child to the school environment. Below is a sample of quite average language proficiency of a congenitally deaf boy, aged sixteen （eleven years of schooling）.

A Boy Liked a Cigar

A boy was named Robert Kennedy. His age was twelve years old.

When his father went shopping, he had a nothing to do except to eat something. He remembered his father told him promised to his father not to eat somethings. Later he had a big idea. He went to library room. He walked over his father’s new sofa. The sofa was dirty. He opened the box of cigar. He picked one. And he think and remember his father told him to do. He putted back it. He leave library room. And one of tiny devil told him disobey his father. He lighted it. He smoked for one hour. Later his father came to home. He slept and felt very sick. His father called him. But he did not called. His father thought he ran away. He ran and looked many rooms. The last room he found. He brother him. His father told him what happen to you. He said, ”Nothing!” His father smelled smoke. His father asked him. “Did you smoked my cigar？”He said, “Yes.” His father scold him. And a tiny angle was fight with a tiny devil.

It is clear that this boy has achieved an amazing amount of competence in English, considering the obstacles. Nevertheless, there are many mistakes of grammar and style. In the course of my work with the deaf, I have received a sizeable collection of letters from young deaf parents and also older individuals. Among all of these correct spondents, there are some individuals who have been profoundly deaf all their lives but whose letters are perfect in grammar. The vast majority, however, make grammatical mistakes of varying degree of severity and about half have the proficiency exemplified in the previous sample.

I am inclined to believe that the failures in proficiency are primarily due to shortcomings in instruction and training, and not due to inherent learning incapacities of the deaf. My clinical experience with congenital anarthria suggests that language competence in the deaf could be vastly improved if they were given much more graphically presented language material and at a much earlier age. It is my impression that their language difficulties (in writing) are due to an acute input deficiency－they have just not been given enough examples(raw data to foster their own language synthesis) during the critical early years. This impression is corroborated by those deaf adults who write good grammar, because they are invariably the most avid readers, and have been so for many years. Although peripheral deafness is injurious to oral speech performance, there is no reason why the basic capacity to acquire knowledge of language ought to be implicated as well. The argument that early acquaintance with and recourse to reading and writing is detrimental to these children’s skills in oral communication and lip reading lacks evidence. In fact, we might assume that if these children had better knowledge of language, both of these other skills might be facilitated considerably.

P331

This paragraph is incomplete! Who takes care of this?……Deaf-and blind people who have built up language capacities on tactually perceived stimulus configuration.

Ⅱ TOWARD A BIOLOGICAL CONCEPTION OF SEMANTICS

The activity of naming or, in general, of using words may be seen as the human peculiarity to make explicit a process that is quite universal among higher animals, namely, the organization of sensory data. All vertebrates are equipped to superimpose categories of functional equivalence upon stimulus configurations, to classify objects in such a way that a single type of response is given to any one member of a particular stimulus category. The criteria or nature of categorization have to be determined empirically for each species. Frogs may jump to a great variety of flies and also to a specific range of dummy-stimuli, provided the stimuli preserve specifiable characteristics of the “real thing.”

Furthermore, most higher animals have a certain capacity for discrimination. They may learn or spontaneously begin to differentiate certain aspects within the first global category, perhaps by having their attention directed to certain details or by sharpening their power of observation. In this differentiation process initial categories may become subdivided and become mutually exclusive, or a number of coexisting general and specific categories or partially overlapping categories may result. Again, the extent of a species’ differentiation capacity is biologically given and must be ascertained empirically for each species. Rats cannot make the same range of distinctions that dogs can make, and the latter are different in this respect from monkeys. The interspecific differences cannot merely be explained by differences in peripheral sensory thresholds. Apparently, a function of higher, central processes is involved that to do with cognitive organization.

Most primates and probably many species in other mammalian orders have the capacity to relate various categories to one another and thus to respond to relations between things rather than to things themselves; an example is “to respond to the largest of any collection of things.” Once more, it is a matter of empirical research to discover the limits of relations that a species is capable of responding to.

In summary, most animals organize the sensory world by a process of categorization, and from this basic mode of organization two further processes derive: differentiation or discrimination, and interrelating of categories or the perception of and tolerance for transformations（Chapter Seven）. In man these organizational activities are usually called

當其他孩子已經完全掌握這項技能時，耳聾的小孩在建立語言聯繫方面，在最重要形成時期是仍然是在下降的，且跟一般人比較，耳聾的人要利用視覺來替代一般人的聽覺。眼睛可以暫時綜合聽覺的跡象，例如讀唇語(雖然精準度不太會超過40~50%)，但清楚的音素嘴型，平常的速度，可以使他們讀出來。

語言水平的差異，在國小時最明顯。因為那是他們適應環境開始，而且聽力損失的程度也大概穩定了。下面是一個耳聾的16歲青年寫的故事。(有11年的學校生活)

故事

有一個12歲的男孩，名叫羅伯特‧甘迺迪。當他爸爸去買東西時，男孩什麼事都不能做，除了吃東西。但他記得爸爸要他不要吃ㄧ種東西。後來他去書房，經過爸爸的心沙發，沙發很髒。他打開ㄧ個裝有雪茄的盒子，當他拿起一根時，他想起爸爸說的話，所以又放下，直接去書房。但心中的惡魔說不要服從爸爸的話，所以他就點了一根雪茄抽了。爸爸回來後叫他，他沒回應，爸爸以為他跑走了。最後爸爸找到他，聞到菸味，問他：「你是不是有抽雪茄？」他回答：「有」然後心裡的天使和惡魔在打架。

很清楚的這個男孩已經有很大量的英語程度，但是還是有錯誤。大部分的聾人，都會有文法上的錯誤，但是有些人在文法上的應用，正確率也很高。

聾人不會因為本身殘缺而無能力，而是在學習上的失敗或缺點。有先天的anarthria的病患，在早期給於治療，加用圖表，可以使他們語言大大有進步。由此可知，什麼年齡時介入，也有影響。聾人有好文法，應該是積極的閱讀者。其實安靜的環境，並不會使聾人無法學習語言。還是有辦法讓他們學習，像是讓他們透過閱讀、手寫、讀唇語等技巧。

對於生物語義學的概念

命名的活動，是人類常有的特性，也被認為是高等動物的一種分化。然而在命名時，要以每一種自然的歸類和生活經驗為主，青蛙和蒼蠅就有不同的特性。而且，大多數高等的動物有某種區別的能力。他們可以透過敏銳的觀察，或者是某ㄧ些細節，而發現差異。這些都是由生活的經驗所來累積的。所以每一種生物也會有不同的特性。

因為原文沒有給完整，所以最後面無法完整翻譯。- Find the complete text!!!