Resources for Communication Problems

Wednesday, January 9, 2008

NC459G凡鈞

NC459G凡鈞

Type the English before you explain or translate into Chinese

負責人: 9580005徐凡鈞

Dorsal背側的;背的(toward the superior surface of the brain)

1541, from M.Fr. dorsal, from L.L. dorsalis, from L. dorsualis "of the back," from dorsum "back," of uncertain origin.

Dorsal view of the cerebral hemispheres showing the principal gyri and sulci. =>Dorsal View of the Brain

Dorsal column 脊柱

column :c.1440, "vertical division of a page," from O.Fr. colombe, from L. columna "pillar," collateral form of columen "top, summit," from PIE base *kel- "to project" (see hill). Sense of "matter written for a newspaper" dates from 1785. Columnist dates from 1920. Literal, architectural sense is attested from 1481.

The posterior column-medial lemniscus pathway is the sensory pathway responsible for transmitting fine touch and conscious proprioceptive information from the body to the cerebral cortex

=> 請參考http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Spinal_nerve.svg

The name comes from the two structures that the sensation travels up: the posterior (or dorsal) columns of the spinal cord, and the medial lemniscus in the brainstem. Because the posterior columns are also called dorsal columns, the pathway is often called the dorsal column-medial lemniscus system, or DCML for short. (Also called posterior column-medial lemniscus or PCML pathway).

Originating in peripheral sensory receptors, the posterior column-medial lemniscus pathway transmits fine touch and conscious proprioceptive information to the brain

Dorsal horn背角

one of the two roots of a spinal nerve that passes dorsally to the spinal cord and that consists of sensory fibers

Dorsal spinocerebellar tract背脊小腦束(posterior spinocerebellar tract)

a compact bundle of heavily myelinated, thick fibers at the periphery of the dorsal half of the lateral funiculus of the spinal cord, originating in the ipsilateral thoracic nucleus (column of Clarke) and ascending by way of the inferior cerebellar peduncle. Terminals end as mossy fibers in the granular layer of the cortex of the cerebellar vermis and, via collaterals, in the cerebellar nuclei. The bundle conveys largely proprioceptive information originating from the annulospiral nerve endings surrounding muscle spindles and from Golgi tendon organs

Down syndrome唐氏症

1961, from J.L.H. Down (1828-96), English physician; chosen as a less racist name for the condition than earlier mongolism

致病機轉:

正常之人細胞含有46 條染色體,每一條染色體是由許多基因排列而成,而這些基因決定了人們所有的遺傳特性。產生唐氏症的染色體變化有三種型式:三染色體症、轉位以及鑲嵌型。

1、三染色體症:約佔唐氏症患者之95%,且發生率與母親年齡增加有相關性。產生的原因是因為在精子或卵子形成時,第21 對染色體發生無分離現象,因此有些精子或卵子多帶了一個染色體,有些少帶了一個染色體。多帶了第21 號染色體的精子或卵子和正常卵子或精子結合後,就變成了三染色體的受精卵,而造成唐式症。大部份三染色體症的父母親均是染色體正常,只有極少數是由三染色體症的母親或鑲嵌型唐氏症的父親所生。

2、轉位型唐氏症:約佔唐氏症患者之4%,是由於第21 號染色體結構上發生缺陷斷裂而轉移黏到其他染色體上去。第21 號染色體由於短臂很小,可以和第131415 號染色體(D 群染色體)或第2122 號染色體(G 群染色體)發生長臂相黏的羅氏轉位,也可以和其他染色體發生交互性轉位,因此若小孩檢查屬於轉位型,則父母需要做染色體檢查。

3、鑲嵌型:約佔所有唐氏症的1%,此型患者體內同時存在混合著含有46個染色體或47 個染色體的細胞,產生的原因是因為受精卵在有絲分裂時產生無分離的情形,而產生兩個系列的細胞。鑲嵌型的唐氏症臨床症狀通常最輕,智商也常達60 以得到先天性心臟病的機會很少。

臨床症狀:

1、外觀特徵:唐氏症患者(特別是臉)的外表是,常常兩個眼睛向上、向外斜,上眥有贅皮的現象,多了皮膚蓋著內眼角,他們頭的背部比較扁平,鼻樑 比較塌陷、上額比較小,同時小顎也比較高,口腔也比較小。他的舌頭因口腔比較小,所以龜裂的舌頭常常會吐出來,並有臍部疝氣、睪丸下降的現象。一般來講,男的唐氏症病人並不具生育能力,女的唐氏症病人則有生小孩的記錄。理論上如果他們有生殖行為的話,有一半的小孩會再出現唐氏症。其他特徵,包括手比較短、比較厚,第五個指頭向內彎,中指發育比較差,還有他們的大腳趾跟二腳趾之間分得比較寬,腳底有一個明顯凹進去的部份。

2、智能不足:唐氏症者最主要的問題是智障。一般而言,唐氏症患者屬於中度智能不足,隨年齡成長因為唐氏症患者的智能發展較緩,智商有相對下降的趨勢。但是實際上小孩的心理、運動和社交還是在持續成長。這種成長要到10 歲以後才趨緩下來。有些唐氏症兒童在10 歲以後還有將近5 年期間的成長期,到15 歲以後才達高原期。15 歲以後的智力才比較穩定。

3、肌肉張力低:唐氏症的小孩出生時的肌肉張力較低,除此外看不出有神精學上的缺陷,但是隨著年齡的成長,可以發現在發育上明顯的逐漸落後於正常之小孩,圖2 顯示出唐氏症小孩在每一個生長指標上都逐漸多落後了將近二個月,到兩歲左右累積起來就落後了將近一兩年。出生時之低肌肉張力會影響到小孩的吸吮力,也會影響到母子的互動關係。有研究指出出生時的肌肉張力和唐氏症患者日後身心發育有關,開始肌肉張力越差的,日後智力和運動能力的發展也較差。

4、各種先天性畸形

Down Syndrome

Dressing apraxia穿衣不能症

不能自己穿戴。和建設失能、單側忽視以及軀體認識障礙有關。分辨不清身體和袖子、衣角、領子之間的相對位置,每每將衣服翻來翻去,不知所措地搖搖頭,隨即卻又辯解這衣服已經很久沒穿了云云。在經過多次居家學習後,才漸漸可以獨立穿脫。治療:針對主要原因進行,加強實踐操作訓練。

Duchenne muscular dystrophy杜馨氏肌肉萎縮症(pseudo-hypertrophic muscular d.)

dystrophy :"defective nutrition," from Mod.L. dystrophia, from Gk. dys- "hard, bad, ill" (see dys-) + trophe "nourishment."(Duchenne's musculardystrophy)(pseudo-hypertrophic muscular d.).疑似肥大肌肉

又稱杜顯氏肌肉萎縮症,是一種性聯隱性遺傳病,亦是兒童期最常見的肌肉萎縮症。由於肌肉細胞不能正常產生一種稱為Dystrophin蛋白質,會使鈣離子滲入細胞,引發瀑布反應,導致患者全身肌肉無力。因為是性聯隱性遺傳,故只有男性會有病徵,帶有一個不正常基因的女性通常不會有症狀,肌肉功能會稍有損壞,但會有50%的機會將有變異的基因傳給兒子。另一種病情較輕的肌肉營養不良症稱為碧加氏肌肉營養不良症(英文:Becker's Muscular Dystrophy, BMD)

身體上的症狀有:

不穩步伐 容易跌倒 不良於行 (跑步和跳) 愈來愈嚴重的行動困難 行路能力通常在12歲時消失 容易疲勞 輕度智能障礙 (大概30%的患者) 骨骼發育畸形 (有些個案為脊椎側彎) 肌肉發育畸形 小腿肌肉異常腫大(Pseudohypertrophy)(這些肌肉的正常組織被硬化組織所取代) 杜興氏肌肉營養不良症最終會影響到所有平滑肌,以及心臟和呼吸肌肉。

This is Duchenne muscular dystrophy. There is degeneration of muscle fibers along with some regeneration and scattered chronic inflammatory cells, fibrosis, and hypertrophy of remaining muscle fibers. Duchenne's is due to a defective gene on the X chromosome that leads to an inability to produce the membrane skeletal protein dystrophin. Thus, this is an X-linked recessive disorder. About 30% of cases represent new mutations.

Muscle weakness is caused by muscular dystrophy.Muscle weakness is caused by muscular dystrophy.Diagram showing X link inheritence © mdcDiagram showing X link inheritence © mdcDiagram showing X link inheritence © mdc

Dura mater硬膜

腦及脊髓的表面有腦脊膜(meninges)包著。在腦部稱腦膜,在脊髓部位稱脊膜。共有三層,最外一層是硬膜(dura mater),中間是蜘蛛膜(arachnoid mater),最內一層為軟膜(pia mater);膜與膜間或膜與腦或脊髓之間都有腦脊液存在,藉以避免腦或脊髓與頭顱骨或脊椎骨相撞擊或受震盪。所謂腦膜炎或脊膜炎即此膜發炎之意。

Meninges of the brain

Dural sinuses腦膜靜脈竇

硬腦膜在某些部位兩層分開,中間形成能讓血液流過的通道,稱為「硬腦膜竇」(dural sinuses),內面襯以內皮細胞,構成硬腦膜竇dural sinuses,內含靜脈血,使靜脈血由腦回流至頸部血管,竇壁無平滑肌,不能收縮,故損傷時出血難止,容易形成顱內血腫。

Dynamic equilibrium動力平衡,(體內動力之平衡).

在運動時維持平衡的能力

Dysarthria發音不良,發音困難,(由神經肌肉障礙所致).

A disorder of articulation. This can be due to either a defect in the organs of articulation (i.e., mouth, tongue, larynx, etc.) or, more commonly in aphasic patients, by impairment to the nerves supplying the organs of articulation. A number of different types of dysarthria are recognised, including spastisc dysarthria (characterised by raised tone in the muscles controlling articulation), flaccid dysarthria (in which there is reduced tone and weakness), dystonic dysarthria (where poorly-controlled writing movements may occur), and ataxic dysarthric (where there is poor coordination of muscle movements). There is no deficit of language. There is debate on whether articulatory apraxia should be described as a variety of dysarthria.

個人健康出了問題,聲音亦亮不起來,甚至因發音困難而引起擠壓喉嚨的情形,這樣子很容易導致呼吸系統和共鳴器官發生病變。

Dysdiadochokinesia輪替運動錯亂

Dysdiadochokinesia is one symptom of a disease that is characterized by progressive cerebellar ataxia, including dysarthria and dysphagia, and cone-rod and retinal dystrophy with progressive central visual loss resulting in blindness in affected adults.. Dysdiadochokinesia is mentioned several times in an article that you can read by clicking on the link at the end of this paragraph. Although it is not an article on Dysdiadochokinesia it is a very important symptom of this disease, Spinocerebellar Ataxia Type 7 it is mentioned quite a few times, in my opinion a very interesting read all and all. Dysdiadochokinesia is also mentioned as a symptom of hyperammonemia.

因小腦的損傷,而造成無法轉換下個動作迅速的能力

Dyskinesia運動困難,運動不良

無法進行自我意識的行動

Dyslexia 1.識字不能.2.識字困難,(中樞神經疾患),

A disorder of reading. The traditional classification of disorders of reading, developed by Dejerine (1892), recognises three kinds of dyslexia, which are distinguished by their accompanying disorders. In dyslexia without dysgraphia (or pure dyslexia), writing is unaffected but reading is disturbed; in dyslexia with dysgraphia, both reading and writing are disturbed, but there is, by comparison, little or no aphasia.. In dysphasic dyslexia, reading, writing, and other langugae modalities are impaired. This classification schema is (broadly) accepted by the neo-classical school

失讀症這個名詞首度由德國Stuttgart Rudolf Berlin 1887年提出。他用這個詞來描述那些閱讀字母或單字有困難的學生。在美國的一本辭典-The American Heritage Dictionary中,dyslexia被定義為是「一種以不能閱讀為特徵的學習障礙」。最近dyslexia曾被定義為「無法學會處理書寫形式的語言,儘管這些人可能有相當好的智力,感官能力,甚至可能很有名」。 (Grubin 2002)

失讀症或誦讀障礙是一種疾病。有失讀症的人,智力同一般人並無差別,但閱讀能力和寫作能力卻與常人有較大差距。當一個人的閱讀困難無法通過智力缺陷、不當教育或視覺障礙等感知問題所解釋的時候,通常就會被診斷為失讀症。由於閱讀是一個非常複雜的思維過程,失讀症的形成有很多可能的原因。神經生理學的觀點認為,可以通過屍體解剖中的大腦形態學觀察判斷失讀症。失讀症通常與發音困難相關。這種閱讀困難可能有人是來自基因上先天的問題,也有人是來自後來環境的影響,普遍認為嚴重的失讀症通常可以找到基因上的根源。

相關影片: http://tw.youtube.com/watch?v=iRViWJqJfZM

Dysmetria動幅障礙

因小腦損傷,而導致無法認定方向與距離近而限制行動

Dysphagia吞嚥困難

因上消化道損害、機械 阻塞或支配吞咽的神經、肌肉功能紊亂所致的吞咽障礙。以食道阻塞最多見,常伴吞咽痛。意指因身體機能上及構造上,或心理的原因,造成進食時食物不易咀嚼、吞嚥或是容易哽咽。中風、頭部損傷、柏金遜症、肌肉萎縮、神經肌肉障礙、年齡老化等皆會導致不同型態的吞嚥困難。可分為運動性障礙及機械性障礙兩種。運動性吞嚥困難是指支配吞嚥步驟所涵蓋的肌肉或神經發生問題,使得吞嚥肌肉輸送或蠕動不全或神經之調配失調,這部份的病變是常見的是中風後吞嚥困難(故往往需借助鼻胃管進食),如巴金森病,瀰漫性食道痙攣(diffusedesophagospasm),食道失馳緩症(achalasia)食道硬化症(esophageal sclerosis)等。而機械性吞嚥困難則屬吞入的食物太大哽住食道(很少見)或食道腔狹小(較常見),其狹小的原因可因食道腫瘤(良性或惡性),食道炎潰瘍結痂而縮小食道的直徑。臨床上常見的有食道癌,長久之逆行性食道炎或潰瘍治療後之結痂性食道狹窄或誤食腐蝕性物質(如硫酸或鹽酸)經治療及長時間後纖維化之狹窄。

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