NC451-2G承樺

adrenal cortex

Outer portion of the adrenal gland , which releases cortisol on stimulation by pituitary gland.

腎上腺皮質

位於腎上腺體外層，分泌三種主要荷爾蒙: 1.Glucocorticoids負責將體內脂肪與蛋白質轉化成糖分，亦可釋出儲存的糖分供使用，以防人體血糖 過低。Glucocorticoids也是種抗發炎荷爾蒙，幫助預防風溼性關節炎、結腸炎、十二指腸潰瘍或胃 潰瘍、鼻炎、鼻竇炎、支氣管炎、花粉症、氣喘、長年上呼吸道感染、皮膚疹及其他對人體無用 的發炎現象。 2.Sex Corticoids便是雄激素及雌激素，與卵巢相比，腎上腺所分泌的雌激素量較少，但是對平衡更年 期女性的體內分泌卻十分重要。 3.Mineralocorticoids對平衡體內礦物質有極大貢獻，一旦人體內礦物質出現不均衡狀況，便會擾亂體 液 平衡，包括細胞內外的細胞液，同時也會影響體內血液量。Mineralocorticoids是人體內促進發 炎的荷爾蒙，與lucocorticoids一同監控人體發炎過程。

來源: http://www.healthimage.com.tw/04-viewtopic.asp?id=39

圖片來源: http://education.vetmed.vt.edu/Curriculum/VM8054/Labs/Lab24/lab24.htm

adrenal gland

Located superior to each of the kidneys. It contains cells that on sympathetic stimulation secrete epinephrine and norepinephrine.

腎上腺

In mammals, the adrenal glands (also known as suprarenal glands) are the triangle-shaped endocrine glands that sit on top of the kidneys; their name indicates that position (ad-, "near" or "at" + -renes, "kidneys"). They are chiefly responsible for regulating the stress response through the synthesis of corticosteroids and catecholamines, including cortisol and adrenaline.

The adrenal gland has a distinct cortex and medulla, each of different embryologic origin and different function.

來源: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrenal http://education.vetmed.vt.edu/Curriculum/VM8054/Labs/Lab24/lab24.htm

adrenaline

Catecholamine neurotransmitter also called epinephrine. Synthesized from norepinephrine.

腎上腺素

腎上腺素是一種激素（hormone）和神經傳導子（neurotransmitter）。該詞的拉丁文前綴ad+renes意思是"在腎肝上"。有時腎上腺素會被簡寫為epi。

腎上腺素（adrenaline,epinephrine,AD）是腎上腺髓質的主要激素，其生物合成主要是在髓質鉻細胞中首先形成去甲腎上腺素，然後進一步經苯乙胺-N-甲基轉移酶（phenylethanolamine N-methyl transferase，PNMT）的作用，使去甲腎上腺素甲基化形成腎上腺素。

腎上腺素的一般作用使心臟收縮力上升；心臟、肝、和筋骨的血管擴張和皮膚、粘膜的血管縮小。在藥物上，腎上腺素在心臟停止時用來刺激心臟，或是哮喘時擴張氣管。

腎上腺素能使心肌收縮力加強、興奮性增高，傳導加速，心輸出量增多。對全身各部分血管的作用，不僅有作用強弱的不同，而且還有收縮或舒張的不同。對皮膚、粘膜和內臟（如腎臟）的血管呈現收縮作用；對冠狀動脈和骨骼肌血管呈現擴張作用等。由於它能直接作用於冠狀血管引起血管擴張，改善心臟供血，因此是一種作用快而強的強心藥。腎上腺素還可鬆弛支氣管平滑肌及解除支氣管平滑肌痙攣。利用其興奮心臟收縮血管及鬆弛支氣管平滑肌等作用，可以緩解心跳微弱、血壓下降、呼吸困難等癥狀。

來源: http://zh.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%E8%82%BE%E4%B8%8A%E8%85%BA%E7%B4%A0&variant=zh-tw

adrenergic

Neurons responsible for synthesizing and releasing epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline).

腎上腺素激導性的

用來合成和釋放腎上腺素、正腎上腺素的神經元

adrenocorticotropin

Hormone that stimulates growth of the adrenal (suprarenal) cortex and regulates the secretion of its hormones.

促皮質素; 促腎上腺皮質激素

a hormone produced by the anterior pituitary gland that stimulates the adrenal cortex.

為腺垂體分泌的微量多肽激素，是腎上腺皮質活性的主要調節者。

來源：http://tw.knowledge.yahoo.com/question/?qid=1406010411985

afferent

Axonal fibers that conduct impulses toward the central nervous system or nerve cell body.

傳入的；向內的

Afferent is an anatomical term with the following meanings: 1.Conveying towards a center, for example the afferent arterioles conveying blood towards the Bowman's capsule in the Kidney. 2.Something that so conducts. 3.Afferent lymphatic vessels

來源：http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afferent

afferent pathways

Axonal bundles mediating bodily perceived sensations of pain, touch, and temperature toward the central nervous system.

傳入途徑

從外在體會到的感覺經由感覺神經元往中樞神經系統傳。

來源：http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afferent_pathways

agnosia

Acquired impairment in recognizing objects while the primary modalities of sensation (touch, vision, hearing) are normally functioning.

認識不能；識別不能

Agnosia (a-gnosis, "non-knowledge", or loss of knowledge) is a loss of ability to recognize objects, persons, sounds, shapes, or smells while the specific sense is not defective nor is there any significant memory loss. It is usually associated with brain injury or neurological illness, particularly after damage to the temporal lobe.

Agnosia can result from strokes, dementia, or other neurological disorders. It may also be trauma-induced by a head injury, brain infection, or hereditary. Some forms of agnosia have been found to be genetic.

來源：http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agnosia

agraphia

Impaired ability after brain damage to express through writing.

失寫症

症狀：手的運動功能正常，但寫字、繪圖等精細動作發生障礙。

是由書寫中樞受損引起的動作障礙。

來源：http://zh.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%E5%A4%B1%E5%86%99%E7%97%87&variant=zh-tw

AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome)

Disorder of the immune system owing to infection with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV-1) in which he antibodies attack the body’s own immune system.

愛滋病；後天免疫不全症候群

愛滋病，又譯愛滋病注、愛之病，源自英語Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome，即「獲得性免疫缺陷症候群」或「後天免疫缺乏症候群」，簡稱AIDS，是一種能引起人體免疫系統衰退的傳染病。它是由人體免疫缺陷病毒（或稱愛滋病病毒，HIV）引起的。這種病毒通過人體的體液諸如血液和精液進行傳染。最普遍的感染愛滋病的方式是沒有保護措施的性行為以及共用沒有消毒的靜脈注射針頭。治療血友病時使用了被病毒污染了的血液製品也是一種主要的傳播方式。

並不是所有感染了愛滋病病毒的人都會發生愛滋病。愛滋病通常是當免疫系統被破壞達到一定的水平後或出現了機會感染的癥狀後而確診的。機會感染是由微生物感染產生的疾病，通常在正常免疫系統的人體中不會發病。在達到愛滋病發病的癥狀前，被感染者只是被認為為愛滋病帶菌者。對免疫系統的破壞程度可以通過對HIV的攻擊目標——T輔助細胞的數目來量化。如果一個人體內的T細胞指數降到200，就表明患者需要進行治療了。

感染愛滋病毒後，通常不會立刻發病，可能在感染後六個月、十年甚至更久以後，才有症狀發生。

這種病毒會破壞人類的免疫系統，使人類失去抵抗病原體的能力，導致病毒、細菌、黴菌、原蟲等，輕易侵入人體，而引發各種疾病及發生惡性腫瘤，使人喪失生命。

來源：http://tw.knowledge.yahoo.com/question/?qid=1405102605037 http://www.taconet.com.tw/ja1963/aids/aids1.htm

圖片來源：http://zh.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=AIDS&variant=zh-tw

AIDS dementia complex

Progressive cognitive (dementia) syndrome occurring after chronic HIV-1 encephalitis.

AIDS dementia complex (ADC; also known as HIV dementia, HIV encephalopathy and HIV-associated dementia) is a common neurological disorder associated with HIV infection and AIDS. It is a metabolic encephalopathy induced by HIV infection and fueled by immune activation of brain macrophages and microglia.

These cells are actively infected with HIV and secrete neurotoxins of both host and viral origin. The essential features of ADC are disabling cognitive impairment accompanied by motor dysfunction, speech problems and behavioral change. Cognitive impairment is characterised by mental slowness, trouble with memory and poor concentration. Motor symptoms include a loss of fine motor control leading to clumsiness, poor balance and tremors. Behavioral changes may include apathy, lethargy and diminished emotional responses and spontaneity. Histopathologically, it is identified by the infiltration of monocytes and macrophages into the central nervous system (CNS), gliosis, pallor of myelin sheaths, abnormalities of dendritic processes and neuronal apoptosis.

ADC typically occurs after years of HIV infection and is associated with low CD4+ T cell levels and high plasma viral loads. It is sometimes seen as the first sign of the onset of AIDS. Prevalence is between 10-20% in Western countries and has only been seen in 1-2% of India based infections.

This has to due to with differences in diets, such as consumption of curcumin (in curry) and EGCG or Theaflavins (in teas), both which can pass the blood brain barrier and have neuroprotective effects. With the advent of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART), the frequency of ADC has declined in developed countries. HAART may not only prevent or delay the onset of ADC in people with HIV infection, it can also improve mental function in people who already have ADC.

Dementia only exists when neurocognitive impairment in the patient is severe enough to interfere markedly with day-to-day function. That is, the patient is typically unable to work and may not be able to take care of him or herself. Before this, the patient is said to have a mild neurocognitive disorder.

來源：http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AIDS_dementia_complex

akinesia

Slow initiation, or loss of power of voluntary movements seen in patients with basal ganglia pathology.

運動不能；動作不能

Akinesia (from the prefix a-, "without", and the Greek κίνηση, kinisi, "motion") is the inability to initiate movement due to difficulty selecting and/or activating motor programs in the central nervous system. Common in severe cases of Parkinson's disease, akinesia is a result of severely diminished dopaminergic cell activity in the direct pathway of movement.

來源：http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akinesia

akinetic mutism

State of altered consciousness in which the patient appears intermittently alert but is unresponsive despite intact motor skills.

Akinetic mutism is a condition in which a person is both mute and akinetic. A textbook on clinical neurology observes that a person with akinetic mutism has "sleep-waking cycles but, when apparently awake, with eyes open, lies mute, immobile and unresponsive." Some dictionaries describe it as "loss of normal muscle tone."

來源：http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akinesia

alar lamina

Alar plate zone of the embryonic neural tube dorsal to the sulcus limitans. Dorsal gray columns of the spinal cord and sensory centers of brain develop from this region.

The alar plate (or alar lamina) is a neural structure in the embryonic nervous system, part of the dorsal side of neural tube, that involves the communication of general somatic and general visceral sensory impulses. It later becomes a sensory region and part of the spinal cord.

來源：http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alar_lamina

albinism

Genetically recessive condition involving partial or total lack of pigment in the skin, hair, and eyes. Results from the abnormalities of melanin production.

白化症

白化症是由於體內色素缺乏，導致眼、毛髮、皮膚顏色較淡。有白化症的生物個體又稱為白子。由於缺乏黑色素，白子通常容易受到陽光的灼傷和天敵的補食，因此在野外白子是極少見的。在爬蟲類的白子如蛇或龜往往呈偏淡黃的體色。白子可見於魚類、兩棲類、爬蟲類及鳥類。

白化症是一種先天性遺傳疾病。人類罹患白化病的比例較動物少見；但在黑種人身上又較其他人種常見。

白化症的患者先天缺乏一種有助酚性化合物氧化成黑色素的一種氧化酵素－酥胺酸酶，所以無法製造出黑色素，然而此時黑素細胞的數目仍是正常的。由於黑色素的缺乏，這些患者的頭髮及皮膚均成白色。某些白化病所呈現的症狀是皮膚及頭髮部份缺乏色素，這類白化病稱為局部白化病。

白化病的患者對光線異常敏感，皮膚很容易被陽光灼傷，故需以防曬措施來保護，故他們容易發生皮膚癌。此外，陽光對患者的眼睛來說也過於強烈，畏光、視力差是白化病的特徵之一；由於缺乏黑色素的緣故，眼睛的虹膜也呈紅色。

來源：http://tw.knowledge.yahoo.com/question/?qid=1205082409229 http://zh.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%E7%99%BD%E5%8C%96%E7%97%85&variant=zh-tw

alexia

Impaired ability , acquired after brain damage, to comprehend written information.

失讀症

失讀症或誦讀障礙是一種疾病。有失讀症的人，智力同一般人並無差別，但閱讀能力和寫作能力卻與常人有較大差距。當一個人的閱讀困難無法通過智力缺陷、不當教育或視覺障礙等感知問題所解釋的時候，通常就會被診斷為失讀症。由於閱讀是一個非常複雜的思維過程，失讀症的形成有很多可能的原因。神經生理學的觀點認為，可以通過屍體解剖中的大腦形態學觀察判斷失讀症。失讀症通常與發音困難相關。

這種閱讀困難可能有人是來自基因上先天的問題，也有人是來自後來環境的影響，普遍認為嚴重的失讀症通常可以找到基因上的根源。

來源：http://zh.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%E5%A4%B1%E8%AE%80%E7%97%87&variant=zh-tw

alkalosis

Condition resulting from an increased acid (pH) level in body fluid.

鹼毒症；鹼血症

鹼毒症的情況是血液酸鹼值上升，原因包括嚴重嘔吐、換氣過度(過度呼吸，有時由焦慮或情緒激動引起)或者身處高海拔地帶(高山症)。

來源：http://www.chem.nthu.edu.tw/~hssp/for_web/for_web/buffers-in-blood.htm

allantois

One of the fetal membranes related to urinary bladder development. Not functionally important in human development.

尿膜

Allantois (plural allantoides or allantoises) is a part of a developing animal conceptus (which consists of all embryonic and extra-embryonic tissues). It helps the embryo exchange gases and handle liquid waste.

The allontois, along with the amnion and chorion (other embryonic membranes), identify humans as amniotes, along with reptiles, dinosaurs, birds, and other mammals.

This sac-like structure is primarily involved in respiration and excretion, and is webbed with blood vessels.

The function of the allantois is to collect liquid waste from the embryo, as well as to exchange gases used by the embryo.

來源：http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allantois

alleles

Genes at corresponding positions (loci) in a chromosome pair.

對偶基因

生物外觀所顯現的特徵(Characters)，在遺傳學上稱之為外表型或表現型(Phenotype)，這些特徵通常具有明顯可辨的差異，例如高矮對比，大小，形狀及顏色等外型上的不同。控制這些外表型表現的遺傳因子，遺傳學上稱之為基因(gene)，大多數的有性生殖生物，其所具有的遺傳物質分別由其雌雄兩親各貢獻一份，因此每一個個體都具有兩份的遺傳物質，也就是在每一個個體內控制每一個外表型的遺傳因子有兩份，這兩份遺傳因子稱為對偶基因(allele, 複數 alleles)，這兩個對偶基因組合的形式稱為基因型(genotypes)，其組合的形式為對偶基因雌對偶基因雄 ，當對偶基因雌與對偶基因雄兩個對偶基因相同時，所組成的基因型稱為同型結合體或同型結合子(homozygote)，如果不同就稱為異型結合體或異型結合子(heterozygote)，以兩個對偶基因而言，可組成的異型結合子有一種，而同型結合子可能有兩種，因此基因型的總數為三種。在外表型所顯現的種類上，如果外表型可以分成三種，如此各基因型就有各自對應的外表型，也就是各對偶基因的效果都獲得顯現，這兩個對偶基因之間就處於平等的地位，遺傳學上稱之為無顯性關係(no dominance)，如果只有兩種外表型，就代表兩個對偶基因中有一個只有在同型結合的狀態下，其效果才能顯現出來，當此一對偶基因與另一個對偶基因組成異型結合子，它的效應被隱藏無法顯現出來，此一對偶基因就被稱為隱性因子或隱性對偶基因，相對地，另一個對偶基因稱為顯性因子或顯性對偶基因，這兩個對偶基因之間的關係稱為顯性關係(dominance)。

來源：http://tw.knowledge.yahoo.com/question/?qid=1106072702740

圖片來源：http://www.cancerwatch.org/glossary/glossary_2.cfm

α-motor neuron

Largest and rapidly conducting spinal motor neuron , which controls the activity of skeletal muscle fibers.

Alpha motor neurons (α-MNs) are large lower motor neurons of the brainstem and spinal cord. They innervate extrafusal muscle fibers of skeletal muscle and are directly responsible for initiating their contraction. Alpha motor neurons are distinct from gamma motor neurons, which innervate intrafusal muscle fibers of muscle spindles.

While their cell bodies are found in the central nervous system (CNS), alpha motor neurons are also considered part of the somatic nervous system—a branch of the peripheral nervous system (PNS)—because their axons extend into the periphery to innervate skeletal muscles.

An alpha motor neuron and the muscle fibers it innervates is a motor unit. A motor neuron pool contains all the alpha motor neurons involved in contracting a single muscle.

來源：http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha_motor_neuron

alpha (α)-wave (α-rhythm)

Brain wave with a frequency between 8 and 13 HZ. Occurs when the patient is relaxed with the eyes closed.

阿琺波

Alpha waves are electromagnetic oscillations in the frequency range of 8–12 Hz arising from synchronous and coherent (in phase / constructive) electrical activity of thalamic pacemaker cells in the human brain. They are also called Berger's wave in memory of the founder of EEG.

Alpha waves are one type of brain waves, commonly detected by electroencephalography (EEG) or magnetoencephalography (MEG) and predominantly found to originate from the occipital lobe during periods of relaxation, with eyes closed but still awake. Conversely alpha waves are attenuated with open eyes as well as by drowsiness and sleep. They are thought to represent the activity of the visual cortex in an idle state.

來源：http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha_wave

alpha rhythm

Present in the posterior brain region, this wave pattern of 8-13 Hertz represents the awaken and relaxed state of the brain.

阿琺律動

為一種腦波律動

腦中存在有許多的功能區域性腦波律動(Brain rhythm)，比較為人所知的有(1)Mu rhythm:約存在於10~20Hz的頻帶之間，主要區域為感覺運動區(sensorymotor area)，(2)Tau rhythm:約存在於8~10 Hz之間，存在區域為上顳葉皮質區(upper temporal lobe)，(3)sigma rhythm:月存在於7~9 Hz之間，存在區域為sensory area，(4)Alpha rhythm:約10Hz，存在區域為枕葉視覺區。這些Brain rhythm具有特定的功能以及特定存在的區域，所以可以用來作特定區域的功能性分析。然而這些腦波律動的訊號屬於非相位鎖定(nonphase-locked)的訊號，所以不能用一般event-related potential(ERP)直接平均的方法來得到結果，而必須採用nonphase-locked的分析技巧來計算由外界刺激所產生的反應。

來源：http://ibru.vghtpe.gov.tw/chinese/eeg.htm

alternating hemiplegia

Brainstem lesion characterized by cranial nerve impairments on the side ipsilateral to the lesion and hemiplegia and sensory loss on the opposite side.

交替的半身不遂

Alternating hemiplegia is a rare condition where a child has episodes of weakness affecting one side of the body. This weakness can affect all the muscles on the affected side, not just those in the limbs. After an episode, the weakness improves, but will recur during the next episode. Alternating hemiplegia is a variable condition that affects children to differing degrees and in a variety of ways. This can make it a difficult condition to diagnose and manage but much expertise has been gained in recent years.

Alternating hemiplegia is a condition which has transient weakness of either, or sometimes both, sides of the body. The attacks may alternate or sometimes overlap, that is the second side is affected before the first recovers. Attacks start in the first year of life and are often accompanied by unusual irregular eye movements. The attacks last from less than an hour which is unusual to sometimes several days. When the attacks are prolonged the manifestations are not apparent during sleep or for the first fifteen to twenty minutes on waking when they then return. This is a very characteristic finding and when there are bilateral attacks this may allow feeding and drinking to occur in that short clear period after waking. The episodes of hemiplegia are not epileptic in nature but epileptic seizures may co-exist and require separate anti-epileptic drug treatment.

The cause is not known. Affected children usually have significant learning disabilities and motor organisational problems, including unsteadiness. There is a tendency for these problems to increase with repeated episodes.

Treatment is with flunarizine (a calcium channel blocker). Other drugs have not been found to be consistently helpful.

來源：http://www.ich.ucl.ac.uk/factsheets/families/F060393/index.html http://www.cafamily.org.uk/Direct/a39.html

Alzheimer disease

Chronic degenerative condition in the aging brain characterized by irreversible loss of memory, disorientation impaired judgment, and disorders of language and cognition.

阿茲海默症

阿茲海默症是一種大腦逐漸退化的過程，它最早是由一位德國神經學專家Alois Alzheimer於1908年所提出。主要特徵是逐步惡化且明顯的記憶力喪失，語言表達能力異常，性格改變，以及認知功能變差，無法自理生活等。它是老年痴呆症最主要的原因之一，在美國約佔全部老年痴呆症的2/3，每年花在照顧及醫療的費用都非常龐大。

是什麼原因造成阿茲海默症？由解剖病理學上發現，病人的大腦皮質糾纏大量的神經纖維和充滿了老化的斑塊；廣泛而不規則的腦萎縮；腦神經細胞明顯減少與喪失，整個腦的重量也比正常人輕10%～15%。若從神經化學傳導物質的研究顯示，病人的記憶力及認知功能異常，主要和腦部膽素（Choline）的功能降低有關，特別是負責製造乙醯膽鹼（Acetylcholine）的轉化（Choline acetyltranferase）簡稱CAT。在阿茲海默症病人的大腦皮質及海馬（hippocampus）內，CAT功能比正常者減低了40%～90%。這個理論被許多實驗支持，也提供藥物治療一個全新的方向。

阿茲海默症有一些危險因子（risk factors）：1.年齡：年紀大仍是阿茲海默症首要的危險因素，大約每增加4.5歲，發生率就增加一倍，85歲以上的老年人大概一半都患有老年痴呆症。2.家族史：約40%的病人近親中也患有阿茲海默症。近年來發現在第21、19或14對染色體有不正常的基因型態，這種基因是顯性遺傳（Autosmaldominant），它造成的老年痴呆也較早發病。3.頭部受傷：可能是由於受傷造成腦細胞喪失或加速老化斑塊的形成。其他如女性，教育水準低，鋁元素過量或有些全身性疾病像甲狀腺功能異常，糖尿病、心衰竭、中風等，也和老年痴呆症有關連。

來源：http://tw.knowledge.yahoo.com/question/?qid=1004121500731

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